Fundamentals of Geography

Introduction to
Geography
Dr. Tasawar Khanam
Rawalpindi Women University
 Geography
The study of the physical features of the Geography is the science that studies the
earth and its atmosphere, and of human interdependence of geographic areas,
activity as it affects and is affected by places, and locations; natural systems;
these, including the distribution of processes; and societal and cultural
populations and resources and political activities over Earth's surface.
and economic activities.
Physical geography involves the spatial
Geographers use spatial analysis (the
analysis of Earth's physical environment.
examination of spatial interactions, patterns,
and variations over area/or space. Various words denote the geographic
Geography is a spatial science; spatial context of spatial analysis: space,
analysis its essential approach). territory, zone, pattern, distribution, place,
location, region, sphere, province, and
• Spatial- The nature or character of physical distance. Spatial patterns of Earth's
space, as in an area; occupying or operating
weather, climate, winds and ocean
within space.
currents, topography, and terrestrial
biomes are examples of geographic topics.
 Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία
geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō
'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the
lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of
Earth.

Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that

seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and
natural complexities—not merely where objects are,
but also how they have changed and come to be.
Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline
with multiple approaches and modalities. While geography is specific to Earth, many
concepts can be applied more broadly to other
Techniques employed can generally be broken celestial bodies in the field of planetary science.
down into quantitative and qualitative approaches,
with many studies taking mixed-methods Geography has been called "a bridge between
approaches. natural science and social science disciplines."

Common techniques include cartography, remote

sensing, interviews, and surveying. Exploring the origins
Example of what physical geographers do: Geographic themes:
• Question: How might a physical geographer
analyze water pollution in the Great Lakes?
The Association of American
• Answer: Geographers for example can describe the
Geographers (AAG) and the National
lake elevations, flows, volumes and annual mixing
Council for Geographic Education
patterns as temperatures change seasonally.
(NCGE), set forth five key themes for
modern geographic education: location,
They can locate population centers and point
place, human-Earth relationships,
sources of pollution using population concentrations
movement, and region.
estimate non-point sources of pollution.
They can map published data of water chemical
analyses. They can use a Geographic Information
System (GIS) model develop a composite overlay of
all the above elements.
The five geographic themes:
Content of Geography
• Location: Either absolute or relative location.
Location answers the question where? – or the specific • Geography derives subject matter from
planetary address of a location. many different sciences.
• Region: Portion of the Earth’s surface with uniform The focus of this class is physical
characteristics; how they form and change; how they geography but geographers also integrate
relate to other regions. some human and cultural components.
Synthesis of Earth topics and human
• Human-Earth Relationship: Humans and the topics is suggested by movement toward
environment: resource exploitation, hazard perception, the middle of the continuum- a holistic,
and environmental modification- the oldest theme of or balanced view. (See Figure 1.2- next
geographic inquiry. slide).
• Place: The characteristics that make each place
unique (realistic or spiritual).

• Movement: Communication, movement, circulation,

and diffusion across Earth’s surface. Global
interdependence links all regions and places- both
physical and human systems
Physical Geography: It is the study of natural features of the earth such as land,
water, air and living organisms. The changes taking place within and among these
natural features and their resultant features are studied under its various branches. The
branches of physical geography are:

1. Geomorphology deals with the distribution of land forms, their origin and the forces
causing changes over these landforms. Geology provides basic information to the study of
geomorphology.
2. Soil Geography is a study related to soil formation, soil profile, soil types, their
fertility level and distribution. Soil erosion and conservation measures are also dealt in this
branch.
3. Climatology deals with the study of global and regional weather and climatic
conditions by analysing relevant statistical data. Meteorology provides basic information
on the composition, structure and the changes in the atmosphere.
4. Hydrology encompasses the study of earth’s realm of water such as oceans and
surface water bodies like rivers, reservoirs and ponds. It also makes a study of
underground water and its recharge and also pollution of water bodies.
5. Oceanography is the study of seas and oceans. The shape, size, depth and bottom
relief of ocean, distribution of oceans, ocean currents and various life forms existing in
ocean are also studied under oceanography.
6. Biogeography is a study of ecosystems over geographical space. It also analyses
the changes in the ecosystems. Phytogeography or plant Geography, Zoo Geography or
animal geography and Ecology are the branches of biogeography.
7. Environmental Geography is the study of environmental issues arising out of
misuse of various spheres of the earth and their implications. The ozone layer depletion,
global warming, melting of polar ice caps, rising sea level and other related aspects are
also given due importance. It also tries to give sustainable solutions to these problems.
Human Geography:
Human Geography is concerned with the changes made by the humans over the natural or physical landscape. The ethnic and
political aspects are taken into consideration. The issues like climatic change, natural and anthropogenic disasters are also the
major concerns.
1. Population Geography is the study of distribution and density of population, the changing patterns in age and sex
composition, birth and death rates, life expectancy, literacy level and dependency ratio, migrations at national and international
level and the causes and consequences of migration.
2. Settlement Geography deals with the characteristics of rural and urban settlements and transportation network. It
seeks better understanding of the present landscape and plans for the future. The study is more important for town and country
planning.
3. Historical Geography tries to picturise the geography of an area or region as it was in the past and studies how it has
evolved over time. The forces involved in transforming region such as colonisation by the Europeans or a natural disaster are
also included in the study.
4. Anthropo Geography deals with the distribution of human communities on the earth in relation to their geographical
environment.
5. Cultural Geography gives emphasis on the location and diffusion of customs and cultural traits such as food habits,
skills, clothing and beliefs and social organisations and their developments in different parts of the earth.
6. Social Geography is closely related to cultural geography. It examines the relationships among the social groups and their
social relationships in the places of their living.
7. Political Geography tries to understand the countries and their neighbours, problems of resources sharing, boundaries
and territorial limits. This branch is also concerned with understanding the political behaviour of the population, relations
between independent states, and patterns of voting and delimitation of electoral constituencies.
8. Economic Geography deals with the distribution of economic activities such as, primary, secondary and tertiary. The
primary activities include food gathering, hunting, animal rearing, agriculture, and mining. The secondary activities include
manufacturing and the tertiary activities include the service sectors such as trade, transport, communication and other related
areas.
9. Medical Geography mainly deals with study of geographical aspects of origin, diffusion and distribution of various
Geographic Techniques: Geography has developed a number of methods and tools to investigate and identify the
spatial structures and patterns. Besides, it also lends or borrows some methods and tools to measure and investigate precise
understanding of the spatial locations and patterns.
1. Mathematical Geography deals with the study of earth’s size and shape, motions of the earth, concept of time and the
time zones.

2. Statistical Geography is concerned with the practice of collecting, analysing and presenting data that has a geographic
or areal dimension, such as census data.

3. Cartography is the study of making maps of various scales using authentic information.

4. Remote Sensing is the art, science and technique of capturing the earth surface features using sensors or cameras in
airplanes or satellites, processing and presenting the spatial information tousers.

5. Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool of the recent decades for geographical studies. It is
used for storing, retrieving, transforming, analysing, and displaying data to prepare useful thematic maps.

6. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is used to pinpoint the geographic location of a user anywhere in the world.
Airlines, shipping, travel agencies and automobile drivers use the system to track the vehicles and follow the best routes to
reach the destination in the shortest possible time.

Global Navigation Satellites System

GNSS is the standard generic term for satellite navigation systems that provide geo-spatial positioning with global or
regional coverage. This term includes the GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (Europe), Beidou (China), IRNSS (India) and
other systems. The GPS was the first GNSS system of the United States and originally used for military applications. Today it
is commonly used in mobiles, vehicles, agriculture and other areas that allow us to use it in all fields of mapping.
 Scientific Method
Scientific Method • Like all other sciences, geographers use
the scientific method approach that uses applied common
sense in an organized and objective manner; based on
observation, reasoning, hypothesis, predictions, and finally
the development of a theory.
• Observation: What data are needed? What do we want to
know? What questions need answering?
• Reasoning: Explanation and interpretation. Building useful
models of real systems- conceptual, numerical. • Hypothesis:
General statement summarize data, observations, and model
simulations.
• Predictions: Experiments conducted; more data gathered
through observation and measurement; hypothesis refined.
• Theory: Real world understood; the knowledge of how
things happen and behave as part of broad, general principles.
 Earth Systems Concepts
Systems Theory: Geographers use systems methodology as an analytic tool. A
system is any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by
flows of energy and matter, as distinct from the surrounding environment outside
the system.

Open systems: A system with inputs and outputs crossing back and forth
between the system and the surrounding environment. Earth is an open system in
terms of energy-why? Other examples are the automobile and a leaf (see next 2
slides).

Closed systems: A system that is shut off from the surrounding environment so
that it is entirely self-contained in terms of energy and materials; Earth is a closed
system in terms of physical matter and resources.
 More systems:
● • System feedback: As a system operates, it generates
outputs that influence its own operations. These outputs
function as “information” that is returned to various points in
the system via pathways called “feedback loops.”

● Feedback loops can guide further system operations.

Example: In plant photosynthesis any increase or decrease in
daylight or water can cause a decrease in growth of a plant.

● System equilibrium: A system that maintains structure and

equilibrium over time. The rates of inputs and outputs in the
system are equal and the amounts of energy and matter are
constant.

● Examples: the rotations of planets. Gradual change of the

system is defined as Dynamic equilibrium. Examples: Long
term climatic changes, increasing temperatures of the
atmosphere and oceans.
The four spheres Earth Spheres
Geosphere: This includes all the solid and
molten rock, from the Earth's crust down to its
core. It is also sometimes called the
lithosphere and includes features like
mountains, rocks, and sand.

Hydrosphere: This is all the water on Earth,

encompassing oceans, lakes, rivers, and
underground water.

Atmosphere: This is the layer of gases that

surrounds the Earth, including nitrogen,
oxygen, and other gases. It regulates
temperature and plays a role in weather and
climate.

Biosphere: This includes all living organisms

on Earth, such as plants, animals, fungi, and
microbes.
 Earth’s Dimensions, Location, and Time
Calculations
• Dimensions
• Latitude
• Longitude
• Great circles, Small Circles
• Prime Meridian and standard time

Key dimensions
Equatorial diameter: 12,756km) (7,926miles)
Polar diameter: (12,714 km) (7,900 miles)
Equatorial circumference: (40,075km
(24,900miles)
Mass: Approximately (5.97x1024kg
Surface area: 510million square kilometers
(97million square miles), with about 71%
covered by oceans
 Latitude
latitude is a coordinate used to specify the north-south
position of a point on the Earth's surface.

It is the angular distance, measured in degrees, minutes,

and seconds, of a point north or south of the Equator.

Reference Line:
The main reference line for latitude is the Equator (0 ∘
latitude), which is an imaginary line circling the Earth
halfway between the North and South Poles.

Measurement: Lines of latitude run east to west

(parallel to the Equator) and are called parallels.
They are measured from 0 ∘ at the Equator to 90 ∘ North
at the North Pole and 90 ∘ South at the South Pole.
Latitude is typically written with an N or S (e.g., 40 ∘ N)
 Longitude
Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the
east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface.
Longitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees,
minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the
Prime Meridian.

Reference Line (Prime Meridian): The main reference line

for longitude is the Prime Meridian (0 ∘ longitude), which
passes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
London, UK.

Lines of Longitude (Meridians):Lines of longitude run

north to south, from the North Pole to the South Pole.
They are called meridians.
Unlike parallels of latitude, meridians are not parallel; they
are semi-circles that converge at the poles.
 longitude
Measurement: Longitude and Time
It is measured from 0 ∘ at the Prime Longitude is crucial for determining
Meridian to 180 ∘ East (E) or 180 ∘ local time and time zones.
West (W).The 180 ∘ meridian is The Earth completes one rotation
also known as the International Date (360 ∘ ) in 24 hours. This means the
Line, which is where the date Earth rotates 15 ∘ of longitude every
changes. hour (360∘ /24=15∘ ).
Consequently, there is a one-hour
Longitude is typically written with an time difference for every 15 ∘ of
E or W (e.g., 74 ∘ W). longitude you travel east or west
from the Prime Meridian. Traveling
east increases the time, and
[Link] traveling west decreases it.
 Great Circles and Small Circles
A great circle is the largest possible circle that can be
drawn on the surface of a sphere.
It is any circle whose plane passes through the center of
the sphere.
Size: A great circle divides the sphere into two equal halves,
called hemispheres. Its radius is equal to the radius of the
sphere itself.
Navigation: The shortest distance between any two points
on the surface of a sphere is always along the arc of a great
circle (this is why long-haul flights follow curved paths on a
flat map).

Examples on Earth:
The Equator is the only parallel of latitude that is a great
circle
A small circle is any circle drawn on the surface of a
sphere whose plane does not pass through the center
of the sphere
.

It is a circle that is smaller than the great circle, as its

plane is offset from the center of the sphere.

Size: A small circle divides the sphere into two unequal

parts. Its radius is smaller than the radius of the sphere.

Examples on Earth:
All parallels of latitude except the Equator are small
circles. The closer a parallel is to the poles, the smaller
its radius.

Examples include the Tropics of Cancer and

Capricorn, and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.
 Prime Meridian Standard Time and UTC
Standard Time is a system that uses the Prime
The Prime Meridian is the starting point (0 ∘ Meridian as its reference to create fixed time zones
around the world, replacing the chaotic local
longitude) for measuring distances east and practice of setting clocks to noon when the sun
west around the Earth and is the reference reached its highest point.
point for calculating global time. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC): This is the
modern, highly precise successor to Greenwich
It is the imaginary line of longitude that passes Mean Time (GMT).
through the original site of the Royal UTC is the time standard at the Prime Meridian (0 ∘
Observatory in Greenwich, London, UK. longitude).Time Zones:
Because the Earth is a sphere that rotates 360 ∘ in
Zero Line: It is designated as 0 ∘ longitude. 24 hours, local time changes by 1 hour for every 15
Function: It serves as the arbitrary boundary ∘ of longitude (360 ∘ /24=15 ∘ ).
between the Eastern and Western Calculation: Standard time zones are set as fixed
offsets from UTC, typically in one-hour increments.
Hemispheres and is the key reference for the
Traveling east of the Prime Meridian: You add time
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the to UTC. For example, a location at 60 ∘ E is UTC + 4
world's primary time standard. hours.
Traveling west of the Prime Meridian: You subtract
time from UTC. For example, a location at 75 ∘ W is
UTC - 5 hours.
 What does timekeeping have to do with
longitude?
How is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) determined on Earth?
• Earth revolves 360° every 24 hours, or 15° per hour, and a time zone of
one hour is established for each 15° of longitude. Thus, a world
standard was established, and time was set with the prime meridian at
Greenwich, England. Each time zone theoretically covers 7.5° on either
side of a controlling meridian and represents one hour.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is called Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC); and although the prime meridian is still at Greenwich, UTC is
based on average time calculations kept in Paris and broadcast
worldwide. UTC is measured today by the very regular vibrations of
cesium atoms in 6 primary standard clocks–the NIST-F1 being the
newest placed in operation by the United States in 2000
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