1 What is Artificial Intelligence?

(c) Making a Machine intelligent

2 Who is the Father of AI? (c) John McCarthy
3 The application/applications of Artificial Intelligence is/are ____________(d) All of the above
4 If a robot is able to change its own trajectory as per the external conditions, then the robot is considered as the
____________ (d) Intelligent
5 AI technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way that ____________ (c) Both
(a) and (b)
6 Which of the following is not an application of AI? (d) Content mining
7 Which of the following is not an application of AI? (d) Content mining
8 What is Machine learning? (c) The selective acquisition of knowledge through the use of computer programs
9 An AI system is composed of? (a) Agent and (b) Environment.
10 Agent's structure can be viewed as ____________ (c) Architecture + Agent Program
11) Which instruments are used for perceiving and acting upon the environment? (a) Sensors and Actuators

12) ____________ provides the frameworks into which more direct methods for solving sub-parts of a problem can
be embedded. (b) Problem
13) A ____________ is a representation of problem elements at a given moment. (c) State
14) ____________ helps us to decide which rule to apply next during the process of searching for a solution to a
problem. (a) Control strategies
15) ____________ is the computational system that implements the control strategy and applies the rules. (b)
Production system
16) Which search method takes less memory? (a) Depth-First Search
17) Which Data structure is used to implement BFS? (b) Queue

18) Which data structure is used to implement BFS? (b) Queue

19) What is a heuristic function? A function that maps from problem state descriptions to measures of desirability
20) Which is true regarding BFS (Breadth First Search)? (b) The entire tree so far been generated must be stored in
BFS
21) What is the problem space of means-end analysis? An initial state and one or more goal states
22) Which search strategy is also called as blind search? a) Uninformed search
23) Which search is implemented with an empty first-in-first-out queue? (b) Breadth-first search
24) What is the other name of informed search strategy? (b) Heuristic search
25) Which function will select the lowest expansion node at first for evaluation? Best-first search
26) Which search is complete and optimal when $h(n)$ is consistent? (d) A* search
27) ____________ are mathematical problems defined as a set of objects whose state must satisfy a number of
constraints or limitations. (a) Constraints Satisfaction Problems
28) Which of the Following problems can be modeled as CSP? (d) All of the mentioned
29) Which is not a property of representation of knowledge? (a) Representational Verification
30) In artificial Intelligence, knowledge can be represented as ____________(i) Predicate Logic and (ii)
Propositional Logic.
31) For propositional Logic, which statement is false? a) Can have answer other than true or false
32) First order logic Statements contains ____________(c) Predicate and Preposition
33) The knowledge representation models are based on in which of the following? (i) Logic, (ii) Rules, and (iii)
Frames.
34) A knowledge representation system should have which of the following properties? (i) Representation Adequacy,
(ii) Inferential Adequacy, and (iii) Inferential Efficiency.
35) ____________ is the ability to represent all kinds of knowledge that are needed in that domain. (b) Inferential
Adequacy
36)____________ is the ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic methods wherever possible rather than
reliance on human intervention. (d) Acquisitional Efficiency
37) ____________ is the ability to incorporate additional information into the knowledge structure that can be used
to focus the attention of the inference mechanisms in the most promising direction. (b) Inferential Adequacy
38) Question: Which of the following statements correctly define knowledge representation in AI?
(a) It is the way in which facts and information are stored in the storage system of the agent.
39) What is the frame? (a) A way of representing knowledge
40) Which of the following elements constitutes the frame structure? (d) Frame reference in hierarchy
41) The basic inference mechanism in semantic network in which knowledge is represented as ____________ is to
follow the links between the nodes. (a) Frames
42) "There exists two ways to infer using semantic networks in which knowledge is represented as Frames" (b)
Inheritance Search
43) Basic idea of ____________ is to break the network into spaces that consist of groups of nodes and arcs and
regard each space as a node. (a) Partitioned Semantic Networks
44) : A ____________ is a structure that prescribes a set of circumstances that could be expected to follow on from
one another. (b) Script
45) ____________ refers to a transfer of possession – the abstract transfer of possession from one person to
another, as in give or a buy. (a) ATRANS
46) ____________ refers to the transmission of an IDEA – some conceptualization is transmitted from one head to
another (or within the same head). (c) MTRANS
47) ____________ refers to a person taking something outside his or her body: spitting, crying, sweating, etc. (d)
EXPEL
48) Which of the following is an extension of the semantic network? (d) Partitioned Networks
49) Graph used to represent semantic network is ____________(b) Directed graph
50) Which is not a property of representation of knowledge? Answer: (a) Representational Verification
51) Which of the following option is used to build complex sentences in knowledge representation? Answer: (d)
None of these
52) Question: In artificial Intelligence, knowledge can be represented as ____________
: (i) Predicate Logic and (ii) Propositional Logic.
53) For propositional Logic, which statement is false? (a) Can have answer other than true or false
54) First order logic Statements contains ____________(c) Predicate and Preposition
55) The knowledge representation models are based on in which of the following? (i) Logic, (ii) Rules, and (iii)
Frames.
56) A knowledge representation system should have which of the following properties? (i) Representation Adequacy,
(ii) Inferential Adequacy, and (iii) Inferential Efficiency
57) ____________ is the ability to represent all kinds of knowledge that are needed in that domain. (a)
Representation Adequacy
58) ____________ is the ability to manipulate the representational structures to derive new structures
corresponding to new knowledge inferred from old (b) Inferential Adequacy
59) The problem solving requires which of the following:  (i) Formal knowledge representation
 (ii) Conversion of informal knowledge to formal knowledge
60) ____________ is the ability to incorporate additional information into the knowledge structure that can be used
to focus the attention of the inference mechanisms in the most promising direction. (b) Inferential Adequacy
61) Which of the following statements correctly define knowledge representation in AI? (a) It is the way in which
facts and information are stored in the storage system of the agent.
1.1) Introduction to AI ? 1 Artificial intelligence consists of two words, artificial which means "man-made" and
intelligence means "power of thinking", i.e. a man-made thinking power. 2 The word "Artificial Intelligence" was first
adopted by American Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI was
coined as an academic field. John McCarthy is father of AI. 3 According to the father of AI, it is a science and
engineering of making intelligent machines and computer programs. 4 Today, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is not a new
field. Nowadays, we can say that AI is all around us. AI can be used in several areas such as research in the medical
field or creating innovative technology, for instance, autonomous vehicles and many more.

1.2) What is AI? "Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that involves building smart machines that
are able to perform tasks which usually require human intelligence".

1.3) Need of AI? 1 It has become important to understand more about Artificial Intelligence and why do we need AI
in our lives. 2 Artificial intelligence (AI) has already started playing a major role in our lives. 3 Understanding the role
of AI in our lives can throw light on its need in society, businesses, and regular day-to-day life. Human efficiency,
activity, and capabilities are highly improvised and augmented when coupled with intelligent machines. 4 The Al-
driven Industrial revolution will bring an impact that no other revolution has brought to date.

1.4) Advantages of ai? : Reduction in Human Error: AI minimizes human mistakes because decisions are based on
pre-gathered data and programmed algorithms, ensuring higher accuracy and reliability. Available 24x7: Unlike
humans who require breaks and time off, AI-powered systems and machines can operate continuously (24/7) without
fatigue or loss of focus. Digital Assistance: AI enables the use of digital assistants and advanced chatbots that can
interact with users, providing immediate support and assistance, which saves human resource requirements. Faster
Decisions: AI machines focus solely on programmed data to deliver results, enabling them to make decisions and
perform actions significantly faster than humans, who may be influenced by emotional and practical factors.

1.5) Disadvantages of AI? High Costs of Creation: AI development involves complex machines and algorithms,
requiring huge initial costs for creation. Furthermore, ongoing expenses are incurred for regular hardware/software
updates and essential system maintenance. Unemployment Concerns: AI and robots are increasingly automating
repetitive and complex tasks, leading to reduced need for human workers (job displacement). This poses a major
threat to employment, especially for minimum-qualified individuals. Encourages Human Laziness/Dependency:
Over-reliance on AI applications for automating work may cause humans to become lazy and overly dependent on
technology, potentially hindering the development of future generations' skills.

1.6) Differ machine learnig and deep learning? Machine Learning: 1 A subset of AI that includes statistical
techniques that enables machines to improve at tasks with experience. 2 Machine learning systems can quickly apply
knowledge from large datasets to excel at speech recognition, face recognition, translation and many other tasks.
Deep Learning: 1 Deep learning is an aspect of machine learning. Furthermore, it is a form of machine learning that
applies neural networks. 2 Deep learning algorithms solve the same problem using deep neural networks, a type of
software architecture inspired by the human brain. 3 AI Systems frequently integrate artificial intelligence, machine
learning, and deep learning to create a sophisticated intelligence machine that will perform given human functions
well.

1.7) What are the APPLICATIONS OF AI? Gaming: AI plays a crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-
tac-toe, etc., where machines can think of a large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge. o
Robotics: Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and
Computer Science for designing, construction, and application of robots. Cognitive Science: It is the interdisciplinary
study of human behaviour and intelligence, with a focus on how information is perceived, processed, and
transformed. Speech Recognition: Speech recognition is one such technology that is empowered by AI to add
convenience to its users. This new technology has the power to convert voice messages to text. And it also could
recognize an individual based on their voice command. Machine Learning: Machine learning is a field of computer
science that aims to teach computers how to learn and act without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning
involves the construction of algorithms that adapt their models to improve their ability to make predictions.
 1.8) What are Three important AI Techniques 1. Search: When no more direct approach is available as well as a
framework in which any direct technique is available then search provides a way of solving problems. A search
program finds a solution for a problem by trying various sequences of actions or operators until a solution is found. 2.
Use of Knowledge: The use of knowledge provides a way of solving complicated problems by manipulating the
structures of the objects that are concerned. 3. Abstraction: Abstraction finds a way of separating important features
and notifications from the unimportant ones that would otherwise confuse any process.

1.9) Explain Intelligent Agents ? 1 "An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through
sensors and acting upon that environment through effectors". 2 An agent in Artificial Intelligence is one that takes
decisions based on rewards and punishments. 3 An intelligent agent is a program that can make decisions or perform
a service based on its environment, user input and experiences. These programs can be used to autonomously gather
information on a regular, programmed schedule or when prompted by the user in real time. 4 A human agent has
sensory organs to get information (percepts) from the world (environment) and has muscles (effectors) to take
actions in response to the percepts. Robots, the physical instantiation of agents, have got sensors like infrared range
finders and cameras to gather information. In this case the effectors are the motors.

1.10) Terms related to agent environment? Actuators: A mechanism that puts something into action. Effectors:
Agent's organs (hands and legs) that becomes active. Perception: What agent sees in the environment? Perception
history: It is the history of perception which comes in a specific period.

Feature Artificial Intelligence (AI) Machine Learning (ML) Deep Learning (DL)

Origin Around the 1950s Around the 1960s Around the 1970s

AI application enabling
Simulation of human systems to automatically
Artificial neural networks used to
Definition intelligence in machines (think learn & improve from
solve complex problems.
& mimic). experience (without
explicit programming).

A subset of AI and Data A subset of AI, ML, and Data

Relationship A subset of Data Science.
Science. Science.

Aims to build neural networks that

Building machines that can Aims to learn through
Focus automatically discover patterns
think like humans. data to solve problems.
(feature detection).

Deals completely with

Deals with structured and Deals with structured, semi-
Data Types structured and semi-structured
semi-structured data. structured, and unstructured data.
data.

Explain structure of agent? 1 Agent Program is a function that implements the agent mapping from percepts to
actions. There exists a variety of basic agent program designs, reflecting the kind of information made explicit and
used in the decision process. The designs vary in efficiency, compactness, and flexibility. The appropriate design of
the agent program depends on the nature of the environment. 2 An intelligent agent is a combination of Agent
Program and Architecture. 3 The architecture makes the precepts from the sensors available to the agent program.
Runs the program and feeds the program's action choices to the effectors as they are generated Agent = Architecture
+ Program
2.1) Components of a Well-Formulated Problem? Initial State: The starting point or the configuration from which
the agent begins its problem-solving process. Successor Function (Operators): A definition of the possible actions (or
operators) available to the agent in any given state. It also describes the transition model, which is the resulting new
state after an action is executed. Goal Test: A simple procedure or function that determines whether a given state is
the goal state (i.e., a solution to the problem). Path Cost: A function that assigns a numerical cost to a sequence of
actions (a path). The goal is often to find the path with the lowest cumulative cost (the optimal solution)

2.2 State Space Representation for "Water Jug Problem? The problem typically involves a 4-gallon jug and a 3-gallon
jug, with the goal of obtaining a specific amount of water (e.g., exactly 2 gallons in the 4-gallon jug). 1 State
Representation: A state is represented by an ordered pair of integers: $(x, y)$. 1.1) $x$: The amount of water in the
4-gallon jug ($0 \le x \le 4$). 1.2) $y$: The amount of water in the 3-gallon jug ($0 \le y \le 3$). 2 Initial State: $(0, 0)$
(Both jugs are empty). 3 Goal State Example: $(2, y)$ (Exactly 2 gallons in the 4-gallon jug, where $y$ can be any
value).

2.3) Explanation of the Production System? A Production System (or Rule-Based System) is a fundamental AI
architecture that provides a structured method for problem-solving or implementing intelligent behavior. It consists
of three main components that cyclically interact : 1 Rule Base (Production Rules): This is the knowledge base of the
system. It is a set of rules, each typically in the form of a Condition-Action pair (e.g., IF $Condition$ THEN $Action$).
2 Working Memory (Global Database): This is the central data structure that contains the current state of the
problem or the facts the system knows to be true. The conditions in the rules are tested against the contents of the
working memory 3 Control Strategy (Rule Interpreter): This component manages the process. It performs a
recognize-act cycle: Match (Recognize): It compares the conditions of all rules in the Rule Base against the current
data in the Working Memory to find which rules are applicable (which ones fire) Conflict Resolution: If multiple rules
are applicable, the control strategy selects one rule to execute based on a predefined priority scheme. Act: It
executes the selected rule's action, which typically modifies the contents of the Working Memory, creating a new
state. The system continues this cycle until the Working Memory matches the Goal State

3.1) Breadth-First Search : Breadth-First searches are performed by exploring all nodes at a given depth before
proceeding to the next level. This means that all immediate children of nodes are explored before any children's
children are considered. Algorithm: Breadth-First Search Step 1: Create a variable called NODE -LIST and set it to the
initial state. Step 2: Until goal state is found, or NODE-LIST is empty, do: (a) Remove the first element from NODE-LIST
and call it E. If NODE-LIST was empty, quit. (b) For each way that each rule can match the state described in E do: (i)
Apply the rule to generate a new state. (ii) If the new state is a goal state, quit and return to this state. (iii) Otherwise,
add the new state to the end of NODE-LIST. Advantages of Breadth-First Search: 1. BFS will not get trapped
explaining a blind alley which happens in depth-first search. 2. If there is a solution, then Breadth-First Search is
guaranteed to find it out. 3. If there are multiple solutions then Breadth-First Search can find minimal solution i.e.
one that requires the minimum number of steps will be found. Disadvantages of Breadth First Search: 1. High
storage requirement: exponential with tree depth

3.2) Depth-First Search : Depth-First searches are performed by going downward into a tree as early as possible.
Algorithm: Depth-First Search Step 1: If the initial state is a goal state, quit and return success. Step 2: Otherwise, do
the following until success or failure is signaled: (a) Generate a successor, E, of the initial state. If there are no more
successors, signal failure. (b) Call depth first search with E as the initial state. (c) If success is returned, signal success.
Otherwise continue in this loop. Advantages of Depth-First Search: 1. Depth First Search requires less memory since
only the nodes on the current path are stored. 2. If depth First Search finds a solution without examining much ofthe
search space at all. This is particularly significant if many acceptable Solutions exist. Depth First Search can stop when
one of them is found. Disadvantages of Depth-First Search: 1. May find a sub-optimal solution (one that is deeper or
more costly than the best solution). 2. Incomplete: without a depth bound, may not find a solution even if one exists.
3.3) INFORMED (HEURISTIC) SEARCH TECHNIQUES 1 For complex problems, the traditional algorithms, presented
above, are unable to find the solution within some practical time and space limits. Consequently, many special
techniques are developed, using heuristic functions. 2 These are the search techniques where additional information
about the problem is provided in order to guide the search in a specific direction. Characteristics of Heuristic Search:
1 Heuristics are knowledge about domain, which help search and reasoning in its domain. 2 Heuristic search
incorporates domain knowledge to improve efficiency over blind search. 3 Heuristic is a function that, when applied
to a state, returns value as estimated merit of state, with respect to goal. Heuristics might (for reasons)
underestimate or overestimate the merit of a state with respect to goal. Heuristics that underestimate are desirable
and called admissible.4 Heuristic evaluation function estimates likelihood of given state leading to goal state.

3.4) Different regions in the State Space Diagram: 1. Local maximum: It is a state which is better than its neighboring
state however there exists a state which is better than it (global maximum). This state is better because here the
value of the objective function is higher than its neighbors. 2 Global maximum: It is the best possible state in the
state space diagram. This is because in this state, the objective function has the highest value. 3. Plateau/flat local
maximum: It is a flat region of state space where neighboring states have the same value. 4. Ridge: It is a region that
is higher than its neighbours but itself has a slope. It is a special kind of local maximum. 5. Current state: The region
of state space diagram where we are currently present during the search. 6. Shoulder: It is a plateau that has an
uphill edge.

3.5) The algorithm for Hill Climbing as follows: Step 1: Evaluate the initial state. If it is a goal state then stop and
return success. Otherwise, make the initial state the current state. Step 2: Loop until the solution state is found or
there are no new operators present which can be applied to the current state. (a) Select a state that has not been yet
applied to the current state and apply it to produce a new state. (b) Perform these to evaluate new state: (i) If the
current state is a goal state, then stop and return to success. (ii) If it is better than the current state, then make it the
current state and proceed further. (iii) If it is not better than the current state, then continue in the loop until a
solution is found. Step 3: Exit

3.6) Best First Search 1 Best First search is a way of combining the advantages of both Depth and Breadth First
Search. 2 We will call a graph an OR graph, since each of its branches represents an alternative problem solving path.
3 The Best First Search selects the most promising of the nodes we have generated so far. This can be achieved by
applying appropriate Heuristic function to each of them. At any point in the search process best first moves forward
from the most promising of all the nodes generated so far. The Best First Process is illustrated in Fig. 3.9 where
numbers by the nodes may be regarded as estimates of the distance or cost to reach the goal node.

3.8) Best First Search Algorithm: Step 1: Place the starting node into the OPEN list. Step 2: If the OPEN list is empty,
Stop and return failure. Step 3: Remove the node n, from the OPEN list which has the lowest value of h(n), and places
it in the CLOSED list. Step 4: Expand the node n, and generate the successors of node n. Step 5: Check each successor
of node n, and find whether any node is a goal node or not. If any successor node is a goal node, then return success
and terminate the search, else proceed to Step 6. Step 6: For each successor node, the algorithm checks for
evaluation function f(n), and then checks if the node has been in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If the node has not
been in both lists, then add it to the OPEN list. Step 7: Return to Step 2.

3.7 Constraint Satisfaction 1 Constraint satisfaction is a problem solving method which is applicable to a variety of
problems. There are many problems in AI in which a goal state is not specified in the problem and it requires to be
discovered according to some specific constraint. Eample: Cryptarithmetic problem 2 Constraint satisfaction process
operates in a space of constraint sets. The initial state contains the constraints that are originally given in the
problem. 3 A goal state is any state that has been constrained enough. For example, in cryptarithmetic problems,
enough means that each letter has been assigned a unique numeric value. Constraint satisfaction is a two step
process: 1. Constraints are discovered and propagated as far as possible. 2. If there is still no solution, then search
begins with adding new constraints and so forth.
3.8) A* Algorithm: Step 1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list. Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if
the list is empty then return failure and stop. Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value
of evaluation function (g+ h), if node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise go to Stepр 4. Step 4:
Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list. For each successor n', check whether
n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list. If not then compute the evaluation function for n' and place it into the Open
list. Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to the back pointer which
reflects the lowest g(n') value. Advantages of A 1. It is complete and optimal. 2. It is the best one from other
techniques. It is used to solve very complex problems. 3. It is optimally efficient, i.e. there is no other optimal
algorithm guaranteed to expand fewer nodes than A*. Disadvantages of A*: 1. This algorithm is complete if the
branching factor is finite and every action has fixed cost. 2. The speed execution of A* search is highly dependent on
the accuracy of the heuristic algorithm that is used to compute h (n).

3.9) The following three things keep in mind while traversing the graph: 1. Traverse the graph starting at the initial
node and following the current best path, and accumulate the set of nodes that are on the path and have not yet
been expanded. 2. Pick one of these unexpanded nodes and expand it. Add its successors to the graph and computer
f (cost of the remaining distance) for each of them. 3. Change the f' estimate of the newly expanded node to reflect
the new information produced by its successors. Propagate this change backward through the graph. Decide which of
the current best paths.

4.1) Knowledge representation is the key through which we can make the future AI system much smarter than
compared to what they are today.

Definition of Knowledge The information about a domain that can be used to solve problems in that area is known
as Knowledge. The act, fact or state of knowing is a set of facts and principles gathered by humankind.

4.2) knowledge is represented in AI systems in the following way. Objects: Objects are nothing more than the
truthful truths. Such facts can be common knowledge or universal truths, such as "The Sun Rises in the East", "Cars
have wheels" or any other fact that remains true in any situation. Events: Things that happen in the real world are
called events. Events are defined as anything that occurs in real time. It is a crucial component because it is the first
thing to consider in knowledge representation. The wars, famines, achievements, advancement of societies, etc., are
an example of this knowledge. Performance: This refers to how well the knowledge has been acquired and how well
it can be applied to machines. Meta-Knowledge: This refers to information that has previously been obtained,
whether by a human brain or a machine. Knowledge base: This is the primary component of the acquisition. agent's
knowledge Facts: It is the knowledge of the factual description of the world.

4.3) The knowledge types are as follows: Declarative Knowledge: Declarative knowledge is the ability to
understand something. It includes concepts of facts, instances, objects declared as a statement. It is also called
descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences. It is simpler than procedural language. Example:
Student database. 2. Structural Knowledge: It describes the relationship between instances and description. 3.
Procedural Knowledge: It deals with the plans, procedures, strategies and rules required for a particular system to
work efficiently. It is also known as imperative knowledge. 4 Meta Knowledge: It is the knowledge consisting of the
higher-level data of other types of knowledge data.

4.4) Methods of knowledge representation:: Logical Representation: Logical representation is a language with
some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no ambiguity in representation. It consists of precisely
defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can
construct legal sentences in the logic. Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
Semantic Networks: This method allows you to represent knowledge in the form of a graphical network. This
network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs representing their relationships. Frames: These methods are
the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists
of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which
are called Facets.
4.7) what is Resolution? it is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs, i.e.
proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in the year 1965.
Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a conclusion of those
statements. Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions. Resolution is a single inference rule which
can efficiently operate on the conjunctive normal form or clausal form.

4.6 ) Algorithm for Resolution in Propositional Logic: Step 1: Convert all propositions to the clause form.
Step 2: Negate P and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses obtained in Step 1. Step
3: Repeat until either a contradiction is found or no program can be made. (a) Select two clauses call these
as parent clause. (b) Resolve them together. The resulting clause called "Resolvent" will be the disjunction
of all of the literals of both the parent clauses with the following exception: If there are any pair of literal L
and -L such that one of the parent clauses contain L and other contains -L then select one such pair and
eliminate both L and-L from the resolvent. (c) If the resolvent is the empty clause, then a contraction has
been found. If it is not then add it to the set of clauses available to the procedure.

4.5 ) Steps for Resolution: 1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic. 2. Convert FOL statements into CNF.
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction). 4. Draw resolution graph
(unification).

4.8 ) Predicate Logic 1 We have seen how to represent statements using propositional logic. Unfortunately,
we can only represent facts that are either true or false in propositional logic. To represent complicated
phrases or natural language statements, PL is insufficient. The expressive power of propositional logic is
quite restricted. 2 Predicate logic is a formal language in which propositions are expressed in terms of
predicates, variables and quantifiers. 3 Predicates are a fundamental concept in mathematical logic.
Predicates express similar kinds of propositions involving its arguments.

4.9) Propositional Logic 1 The simplest kind of logic is Propositional Logic (PL), in which all statements are
made up of propositions. The term "proposition" refers to a declarative statement that can be true or false.
It is a method of expressing knowledge in logical and mathematical terms. 2 Propositional logic, also known
as sentential logic and statement logic. Example: (a) It is rainy season. (b) The Sun sets at East. (False
proposition) (c) 5+6=7 (False proposition) (d) 6 is even number.

5.1) Semantic Networks : The easiest form of knowledge representation is semantic network. Semantic
network is an alternative to predicate logic as a form of knowledge representation. It uses visual
representation of knowledge in the form of Graph. In semantic network, information is represented as set
of nodes representing objects in real world, set of labeled arcs represent relationships among the nodes. It
uses an instance of relationship. Steps to create semantic network: 1. Create new nodes to represent new
objects either contained or alluded to in the knowledge. 2. Relate information to nodes and fill up slots.

5.2) what is frames: Frame is an extension to semantic network. A frame is a record like structure which
consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data
structure which divides knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of
a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes.
5.3 ) Advantages of frame representation: 1. The frame knowledge representation makes the
programming easier by grouping the related data. 2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and
used by many applications in AI. 3. It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and relations. 4. It is easy
to include default data and to search for missing values. 5. Frame representation is easy to understand and
visualize. Disadvantages of frame representation: 1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily
processed. 2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation. 3. Frame
representation has a much generalized approach.

5.4 Conceptual Dependency (CD) Conceptual Dependency originally developed to represent knowledge
acquired from natural language input. It is independent of the language in which the sentences were
originally stated. CD representations of a sentence are built out of primitives that are not words belonging
to the language but are conceptual. These primitives are combined to form the meanings of the words. As
an example consider the event represented by the sentence. The goals of Conceptual Dependency (CD: 1
To help in the drawing of inference from sentences. 2 To be independent of the words used in the original
input. 3 That is to say: For any two (or more) sentences that are identical in meaning there should be only
one representation of that meaning. CD provides: o A structure into which nodes representing information
can be placed. • A specific set of primitives. o At a given level of granularity

5.5) Advantages of Conceptual dependency: 1. Using these primitives involves fewer inference rules. 2.
Many inference rules are already represented in CD structure. 3. The holes in the initial structure help to
focus on the points still to be established. Disadvantages of Conceptual dependency: 1. Knowledge must
be decomposed into fairly low level primitives. 2. Impossible or difficult to find correct set of primitives. 3.
A lot of inference may be still required. 4. Representations can be complex even for relatively simple
actions. For example, Consider, 'Andy bet Charles seven pounds that Wales would win the Rugby World
Cup.' 5. Such Complex representations require a lot of storage .

5.6) Applications of CD: 1. MARGIE(Meaning Analysis, Response Generation and Inference on English):
model natural language understanding. 2. SAM(Script Applier Mechanism): Scripts to understand stories. 3.
PAM(Plan Applier Mechanism): Scripts to understand stories.

5.7 ) SCRIPT A script is a structure that describes a stereotyped sequence of events in a particular context.
Also it is a set of circumstances which could be expected to follow on from one another. A script consists of
a set of slots; some information is always associated with each slot. It is similar to a thought sequence or a
chain of situations which could be anticipated. It could be considered to consist of a number of slots or
frames but with more specialized roles. Scripts are beneficial because: 1 Events tend to occur in known
runs or patterns. 2 Causal relationships between events exist. 3 Entry conditions exist which allow an event
to take place. 4 Prerequisites exist upon events taking place. For example, when a student progresses
through a degree scheme or when a purchaser buys a house. The components of a script include: 1 Entry
Conditions: These must be satisfied before events in the script can occur. 2 Results: Conditions that will be
true after events in script occur. 3 Props: Slots representing objects involved in events. 4 Roles: Persons
involved in the events. 5 Track: Variations on the script. Different tracks may share components of the same
script. 6 Scenes: The sequence of events that occur. Events are represented in conceptual dependency
form. Advantages of script: 1. Ability to predict events. 2. A single coherent interpretation may be build up
from a collection of observations. Disadvantages: 1. Less general than frames. 2. May not be suitable to
represent all kinds of knowledge.
5.8) Cyc is a long-term artificial intelligence project that attempts to assemble a comprehensive ontology
and database of everyday common-sense knowledge. 2 The Cyc project began in July 1984 by Douglas
Lenat. 3 Its initial goal is to capture knowledge from a hundred randomly selected articles in the
EnCYClopedia Britannica. 4 Both Implicit and Explicit knowledge encoded. Importance given on study of
underlying information (assumed by the authors but not needed to tell to the readers). 5 The original
version of CycL was a frame language, but the modern version is not. Rather, it is a declarative language.

Structure of Cyc: 1 Cyc uses a declarative language called CycL based on first-order logic. 2 CycL was written
in Lisp and has a similar syntactical appearance. 3 The main lexical component is a set of concepts, also
called constants, which begin with #$. These constants can be specific objects, collections of objects, or
relations between objects. For example, (#$isa #$DouglasLenat #$AIResearcher) means "Douglas Lenat is
an AI researcher."This is an example of a fact in the Knowledge Base. Example: Suppose we read that
Wellington learned of Napoleon's death. Then we (humans) can conclude Napoleon never new that
Wellington had died.

6.1) "Machine learning "1 Machine learning allows a machine to learn from data, improve performance
based on experiences, and try to predict things without having to be explicitly programmed. A machine can
learn if it can improve its performance by gaining new data." 2 Machine learning algorithms create a
mathematical model with the help of sample historical data, referred to as training data that helps in
making predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. In order to create predictive models,
machine learning combines Computer science and Statistics. 3 Machine learning is the process of creating
or employing algorithms that learn from historical data. The more information we supply, the better our
performance will be.

6.2 What is Machine Learning and how does it work? 1 A Machine Learning system learns from previous
data constructs prediction models and predicts the result whenever fresh data is received. 2 Learning is
used within the field of data analytics to devise complex models and algorithms that lend themselves to
prediction. In commercial use, this is known as Predictive Analytics. 3 The accuracy of predicted output is
dependent on the amount of data, as a large amount of data helps to build a better model that predicts the
output more accurately. Through learning from previous relationships and trends in the data set, these
analytical models enable researchers, data scientists, engineers, and analysts to "create dependable,
repeatable judgments and results" and uncover "hidden insights" (input). 4 If we have a complex situation
for which we need to make predictions, rather than writing code for it, we may just input the data to
generic algorithms, and the machine will develop the logic based on the data and forecast the outcome.
Machine learning has shifted our perspective on the issue. Machine Learning has the following
characteristics: 1 Machine learning makes use of data to find patterns in a dataset. 2 It can learn from
previous data and improve on its own. 4 It is a technology that is based on data. 3 Machine learning and
data mining are very similar in that they both deal with large amounts of data Need for Machine Learning:
Machine learning is becoming increasingly important. Machine learning is required because it is capable of
performing tasks that are too complex for a human to perform directly. As humans, we have some limits in
that we cannot manually access vast amounts of data, needing the use of computer systems, which brings
us to machine learning. Importance Machine Learning:1 Rapid increment in the production of data. 2
Complicated problems those are tough for a human to solve. 3 Making decisions in a variety of fields
including finance. 4 Extracting meaningful information from data and uncovering hidden patterns.
6.4) Supervised learning: Supervised learning, also known as supervised machine learning. It is defined as
when an algorithm learns from example data and associated target responses, which might be numeric
values or string labels such as classes or tags, in order to predict the correct response when presented with
new instances. Unsupervised learning: Unsupervised learning occurs when an algorithm learns from
simple samples with no accompanying response, allowing the algorithm to discover data patterns on its
own. This sort of technique restructures the data into new features that may indicate a class or a new set of
uncorrelated values. They are quite valuable in supplying people with fresh useful inputs to supervised
machine learning algorithms as well as insights into the meaning of data. Reinforcement learning:
Reinforcement learning (RL) is the training of machine learning models to make a sequence of decisions. It
occurs when you present the algorithm with examples that don't have labels. However, you can give
positive or negative feedback to an example depending on the solution the algorithm proposes. This falls
under the category of Reinforcement learning, which is linked to applications in which the algorithm must
make decisions (rather than just being descriptive, as in unsupervised learning), and the decisions have
consequences. It's similar to learning by trial and error in the human world.

6.5) Following are some trends of AI technologies: AI Customer Support and Assistance: Each business
should attempt to offer an enjoyable customer experience. Satisfying existing customers helps businesses
market new products and services. AI enables firms to improve their customer service by offering better
response time and interaction. Artificial system assistance includes sales tasks and customer services. Data
Access Enabling Ubiquity: Reliable and accurate information helps businesses shift to AI-powered
automated decision making. It has cut operational cost, streamlined processes, and improved the research
capabilities of many organizations. Predictive Analytics: Predictive analytics will help businesses use real
data to prepare for outcomes and behaviors thus being more proactive. Enhanced Customization:
Businesses need to offer relevant and personalized services to remain relevant and widen their client base.
Real-Time Marketing Activities: Instant data on current marketing decisions is part of real-time marketing.
It depends on relevant trends and customer feedback to prepare strategies. AI-Powered Chatbots: Many
businesses use chatbots to market products and make payments. They are efficient in offering exemplary
customer service.

Who Benefits from Weather Watches? 1 Weather companies were the first industry to use
ForecastWatch's solution to measure forecast accuracy and quality. But its base of customers has been
expanding to businesses in any field that needs highly reliable data for weather forecast predictive
analytics. 2 In one example provided by Floehr, a large transportation company has improved its decision
matrix by leveraging smart weather data for accurate analysis of upcoming weather events. "It has to do
certain things to ensure the safety of their transports based on different weather conditions," he says. 3
Another interesting example has to do with how sports arenas and team facility owners can take advantage
of marrying their own data with ForecastWatch's historical weather data to help build better business
models. Gaining a better understanding of how weather likely will affect fan attendance - based on
ForecastWatch's historical weather data combined with their own attendance models - gives them the tools
they need to predict and make decisions around how the arena should operate on certain days.

AI-POWERED CHATBOTS (SBI CARD CHATBOT (ILA)) An AI chatbot is a program within a website or app
that simulates human conversations using NLP (natural language processing). A chatbot is programmed to
work independently from a human operator. It can answer questions formulated to it in natural language
and respond like a real person. It provides responses based on a combination of predefined scripts and
machine learning applications.