SAMPLING

Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places, or things to study.
Research conclusions and generalizations are only as good as the sample they are based
on. Samples are always subsets or small parts of the total number that could be studied.
Thus sampling is the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study
population.
Some of the definitions of sampling are:
Goode and Hatt
'A sample as the name implies is the smaller representation of a larger whole.'
Kerlinger:
'Sampling is taking any portion of a population or universe as representative
of the population or universe.'
Above these definitions concentrate on following aspects, which are:
• Sampling is the selected part, which is taken from larger whole.
• Sampling is not whole; it is smaller representation of larger whole.
Sampling is the method of selecting the part which a representative of the
whole.
Before gathering your sample, it's important to find out as much as possible about your
population. Population refers to the larger group from which the sample is taken.
Population may be finite or infinite. A finite population is one containing a fixed
number of elements. The number of books in a library is an example of finite
population. An infinite population is one without limits of any kind and is therefore
indeterminate.
You should at least know some of the overall demographics; age, sex, class, etc., about
your population. This information will be needed later after you get to the data analysis
part of your research, but it's also important in helping you decide sample size.
In such cases we must consider the following questions:
 What is the group of people (STUDY POPULATION) we are interested in from
which we want to draw a sample?
  How many people do we need in our sample?
 How will these people be selected?
The study population has to be clearly defined (for example, according to age, sex, and
residence.) Otherwise we cannot do the sampling. Apart from persons, a study population
may consist of villages, institutions, records, etc.
Each study population consists of STUDY UNITS. The way we define our study
population and our study unit depends on the problem we want to investigate and on the
objectives of the study.
Sampling units
The population units selected in sample is called sample units. Types of sampling units
dealt in socio-economic surveys are:
 Geographical units: Ecological regions, districts, cities, wards etc.
 Structural units: A house, a flat etc.
 Social group units: A family, a school, etc.
 Individuals
Sampling and non sampling errors
The error is attributed to fluctuations of sampling is called sampling errors. Sampling
errors is due to the fact that only a subset of the population has been used to estimate the
population parameters and draw the inference about the population.
Sampling errors are primarily due to the following reasons:
1. Faulty selection of the sample: some of the bias is introduced by the use of
defective sampling technique for the selection of a sample.
2. Substitution: if difficulties arise in enumerating a particular sampling unit include
in the random sample, the investigator usually substitute a convenient member of
the population. This obviously leads to some bias since the characteristics
possessed by the substituted unit will usually be different from those possessed by
the unit originally included in the sample.
3. Faulty demarcation of sampling unit: bias due to defective demarcation of
sampling units is particularly significant in area surveys such as agricultural
 experiments in the field.
4. Error due to bias in the estimation method: sampling method consists in
estimating the parameters of the population by appropriate statistics computed
from the sample. Improper choice of the estimation techniques might introduce
the error.
5. Variability of the population: sampling error also depends on the variability or
heterogeneity o f the population to be sampled.
Non – sampling Error
It is an error which is mainly induced by human factor. This error may prevail in both
sample survey and the census. This type of error occurs due to the following factors:
1. Improper planning of sample survey: If sample planning is not proper the error
may be involved in defining the objectives of the sample survey. Since the
population to sampled, data to be collected, choice of sampling units and sample
design etc. are the basis for the defining the objectives. Non – sampling error may
occur in these processes because of:
a. Insufficient and inconsistent specification of data with the objectives of
survey.
b. Incomplete and wrong information due to error in measuring
characteristics, in recording the measurement, in designing the
questionnaires, in locating the units etc.
2. Response error: These errors are introduced as a result of the responses
furnished by the respondents and may be due to any of the following reasons:
a. Response error may be accidental: for example, the respondent may
misunderstand a particular question and accordingly furnish improper
information un-intentionally.
b. Prestige bias: An appeal to the pride or prestige of person interviewed may
introduce yet another kind of bias, called prestige bias by virtue of which he
may upgrading his education, intelligence quotient, income etc. or
downgrade his age, thus resulting in wrong answers.
 c. Bias due to interviewer: Sometimes the interviewer may affect the accuracy
of the response by the way he asks questions or records them.
d. Failure of respondent’s memory: M any of the questions in survey refer to
happenings or conditions in the past and there is a problem both of
remembering the events and associating it with the correct time period.
3. Non – response bias: This error is occurring due to unavailability of respondent
or inability of respondent to response or refusing to response certain questions.
4. Coverage error: These error occur due to inclusion of certain units which are not
included or exclusion of certain units which are to be included in the sample
survey. If the objectives of the survey are not clearly defined such error are
involved.
5. Compiling error: This error may occur in the process of editing, coding,
tabulating, summarizing the original observation made in the sample survey.
6. Publication error: These errors may occur during presentation and printing of the
results of the sample survey. These errors are involved due to careless proof
reading.
Parameters and statistics
The statistical measures like mean, median, standard deviation etc. may be computed
from population data as well as from sample data. The statistical measure computed from
population data is known as parameter and the statistical measure computed from sample
data is called statistic.
Representativeness
If researchers want to draw conclusions which are valid for the whole study population,
which requires a quantitative study design, they should take care to draw a sample in
such a way that it is representative of that population.
A representative sample has all the important characteristics of the population from
which it is drawn.
Sampling process
1. Define the Population
Population must be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and time.
Conclusion cannot be drawn concerning a population until the nature of the units
that comprise it is clearly identified.
2. Specify the sampling frame
A sampling frame is a means of accounting for all elements in the population.
Once the population is clearly identified, you can obtain a complete, accurate, and
up- to- date list (called frame) of all the units in the population. A sampling frame
may be telephone directory, voter list of a constituent, a list of all residents in a
locality etc.
3. Specify Sampling unit
The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be
sampled. The sampling unit selected is often dependent upon the sampling frame
and is also partially dependent upon the overall design of the project.

4. Selection of Sampling Method

The sampling method is the way of selecting the sample units. There are several
methods or techniques of selecting samples. Such as Simple random sampling,
Systematic sampling, Stratified sampling, Cluster sampling Multistage sampling,
Quota sampling etc.
5. Determination of the Sample size
After selecting the sampling method, the size of selection of sample from the
population must be determine.
6. Specify the Sampling Plan
The sampling plan involves the specification of how each of the decisions made
thus far is to be implemented.
7. Select the sample
The final step in the sampling process is the actual selection of the sample
 elements.

Limitations or demerits of sampling

• Possibility of prejudice and bias :
Due to the nature, relation, ego, ideology, sex of researcher, there is possibility of
prejudice and bias while selecting sample.
• Difficulty in selecting representative sample:
If the phenomena are of complex and diversity nature, the selection of
representative sample is very difficult.
• Special knowledge needed
Special knowledge needed sampling technique becomes scientific and successful
when specialized investigators do it. If ordinary people do this, the conclusions
derived from this technique may be biased and wrong.
• Difficulty in sticking to sample:
Due to geographical condition, high status,' parda Partha', the units which is
selected for sample difficult to contact easily.
• Impossibility of sample technique:
If the study area is very diverse and small in size, there is impossibility of sample
technique. The researcher should take the universe instead of sample.
Advantages of Sample
• Time saving:
Sampling is less time-consuming than census technique. It involves the study of
smaller number of units, which in turn save times.
• Saving money:
Generally, sample study requires less money. Because in sample study we selected
smaller units which take less time for study and saving money.
• Possibility of more intensive study:
Since the area of study is quite small, detailed and intensive study is possible
 through this method.
• Accuracy of result:
Sampling ensures completeness and a high degree of accuracy due to a small area
of study.
• Administrative convenience:
Since the area of study is small, administrative convenience is possible through
this method. Because few persons may required for the completion of the study.
Types of sampling
Probability sampling
Probability sampling involves using random selection procedures to ensure that each
unit of the sample is chosen on the basis of chance. All units of the study population
should have an equal, or at least a known chance of being included in the sample.
According to Karlinger, 'probability sampling is the method of drawing a
portion of a population or universe so that each member of the populations has
equal chance of being selected.'
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLE
• Each sample unit has an equal chance of being selected as a sample.
• Probability of selection of a unit is proportional to sample size.
• The desired sample size is clearly specified.
• The size of the parent population from which the sample is to be taken in known
to the investigator.
Probability sampling requires that a listing of all study units exists or can be compiled.
This listing is called the sampling frame.
The following probability sampling methods will be discussed:
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Multistage sampling
Simple random sampling:
It is the method of selecting the sample from the population in such a way that each and
every unit of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected in
the sample.
If the units selected at any draw are not replaced in the population before making the next
draw, then it is called “simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR)” but if
it is replaced back before the next draw, then the sampling is called simple random
sampling with replacement (SRSWR)”. Generally the following two methods are used in
the selection of sample from the population, in the simple random sampling method.
Which is (1) Lottery method (2) Tables of random number.
Systematic sampling
This method of sampling is used if every unit (a complete list) of the population from
which the sample is to be taken is available. In this method, every unit in the population
are arranged in systematically in some order (i.e. the order may be geographical, or
chronological, or alphabetical). Then the sampling interval is obtained by dividing the
population size (N) by the sample size (n).
N
i.e. Sampling interval (k) = n (I)
To draw systematic sample, we have to follow the following procedure:
 List the total number of units in the population.
 Decide the sample size.
 Calculate the sampling ratio, k.
 Identify the random start.
 Draw a sample by choosing every Kth entry.
For example, a systematic sample is to be selected from 1200 students of a school. The
sample size selected is 100. The sampling fraction is:
1200
K = 100 = 12
The sampling interval is therefore 12.
The number of the first student to be included in the sample is chosen randomly, for
example by blindly picking one out of twelve pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 12. If
number 6 is picked, then every twelfth student will be included in the sample, starting
with student number 6, until 100 students are selected: the numbers selected would be 6,
18, 30, 42, etc.
Systematic sampling is usually less time consuming and easier to perform than simple
random sampling.
Stratified sampling
If the characteristics of the elements within the population are not homogeneous, the
systematic or simple random sampling may not give representative sample.
Thus if it is important that the sample includes representative study units of small groups
with specific characteristics (for example, residents from urban and rural areas, or
different religious or ethnic groups), then the sampling frame must be divided into
groups, or STRATA, according to these characteristics. Random or systematic samples
of a pre-determined size will then have to be obtained from each group (stratum). This is
called STRATIFIED SAMPLING.
The division of population into different strata is based on the fact that –
 The units within each stratum are as homogeneous as possible.
 The characteristics between the strata are different.
 The various strata are non overlapping.
The sample from each strata may be taken proportionally or disproportionally. In
proportional stratified random sampling, the samples are taken from each strata on the
basis of size of strata. But in disproportional stratified sampling, equal numbers of items
are selected from each strata, irrespective of the size of stratum. The process of drawing a
stratified sample is:
 Determine the variables to use for stratification.
 Determine the proportionate stratification based on study’s information needs and
risks.
 Divide the sampling frame into separate frames for each stratum.
  Randomize the elements within each stratum’s sampling frame.
 Follow random or systematic procedures to draw the sample.
For example, if the department has 1000 employees consisting of 900 males and 100
females, and you intend on sampling 10% of the total, then you proceed randomly as
usual, drawing 90 males at random and 10 females at random. If you had used the
employee list of names, regardless of gender, you might not have obtained 10 females at
random because there's so few of them.
Merits
i. The units selected represent the whole population.
ii. The estimation of population parameters is more efficient.
iii. For large and heterogeneous population, stratified sampling is the best design.
Demerits
i. This method requires more time and cost.
ii. Stratification of units is quite tedious.
Cluster sampling
In random sampling, the population is classified in to number of smaller of relatively
small sub divisions which are called clusters. When sampling unit is a cluster the
procedure is called cluster sampling. Clusters are generally made up of neighbouring
elements and therefore the element within a cluster tends to have similar characteristics.
The number of elements in the cluster is not restricted. After dividing the population in to
specified clusters, the required number of clusters can be selected randomly. Thus the
selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead of the selection of study units
individually is called CLUSTER SAMPLING.
The division of population in to different cluster is based on the fact that:
 The characteristics within the cluster are heterogeneous.
 The characteristics between the clusters are homogeneous.
Merits
Collecting data for neighbouring elements is easier, cheaper, faster, and operationally
more convenient then observing units spread over a region.
 1. It is less costly than simple random sampling and stratified sampling.
2. Is useful even when the sampling frame of elements may not be readily available.
Demerits
1. The efficiency decrease with increase in cluster size.
2. The efficiency per unit cost may be more in cluster sampling.
For example, in a study of the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) related to
family planning in rural communities of a region, a list is made of all the villages.
Using this list, a random sample of villages is chosen and all study units in the
selected villages are interviewed.
Multistage sampling
Multistage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling.
Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. Using all the sample
elements in all the selected clusters may be probably expensive or not necessary. Under
these circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful. Instead of using all the
elements contained in the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects elements
from each cluster. Constructing the clusters is the first stage. Deciding what elements
within the cluster to use is the second stage. The technique is used frequently when a
complete list of all members of the population does not exist and is inappropriate.
For example, household surveys conducted by Nepal bureau of statistics begin by
dividing metropolitan regions into 'collection districts', and selecting some of these
collection districts (first stage). The selected collection districts are then divided into
blocks, and blocks are chosen from within each selected collection district (second
stage). Next, dwellings are listed within each selected block, and some of these dwellings
(a house or other building or place in which somebody lives)are selected (third stage).
This method means that it is not necessary to create a list of every dwelling in the region,
only for selected blocks.
Advantage and disadvantage
Advantages
 This is flexible method then other sampling methods.
  Since sample size is reducing in each times, this sampling technique save time and
cost.
Disadvantage
 Samples in different stages should be taken carefully, otherwise this method give
faulty result.
 This method is less accurate than that of single stage sampling.
Non probability sampling
Non probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the
population have no chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't be
accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence,
because the selection of elements is nonrandom, non probability sampling does not allow
the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions place limits on how much
information a sample can provide about the population. Information about the
relationship between sample and population is limited, making it difficult to extrapolate
from the sample to the population.
Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into exclusive mutually sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told
to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. In
quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random. For example interviewers
might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The problem is that these
samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random
element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of
controversy for many years
Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling (sometimes known as incidental or accidental or grab or
opportunity sampling) is a type of non probability sampling which involves the sample
being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample
population selected because it is readily available and convenient.
In other words in this method researcher selects the persons, events or item
according to his convenience. Her he does not care about including the unit with
some specific or designated trait; rather he is mainly guided by convenience and
economy.
The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the
total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct such a survey at a shopping center early
in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to
those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times
of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
Snowball Sampling.
In social science research, snowball sampling is a technique for developing a research
sample where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their
acquaintances. Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling snowball. As the
sample builds up, enough data is gathered to be useful for research. This sampling
technique is often used in hidden populations which are difficult for researchers to
access; example populations would be drug users or commercial prostitutes. Thus this
sampling is particularly used to study drug culture, teenage gang activities etc.
Because sample members are not selected from a sampling frame, snowball samples are
subject to numerous biases. For example, people who have many friends are more likely
to be recruited into the sample.
The procedures followed in snowball sampling are as follow:
 Make contact with one or two cases in the population.
 Ask these cases to identify further cases.
 Ask these new cases to identify further cases.
  Stop when either no more new cases are given or the sample is as large as is
manageable.
Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling
Judgmental samples are selected from the population through researcher intuition or on
some other subjective basis. The selection of sample is deliberate and purposive, it is not
random. Thus, sample representativeness is highly dependent upon the good judgment of
the researcher.
Merits
1. Since purposive sampling does not involve any random selection process, it is
somewhat less costly and more readily accessible to the investigator.
2. It is a very convenient method sampling as compared to other method of non
probability sampling.
3. Purposive sampling guarantees that those individuals will be include in the sample
that are relevant to the research design.
Demerits
1. In purposive sampling there is no way to ensure that the sample is truly random or
representative of the population.
2. In purposive sampling too much emphasis is placed on the ability of the
investigator to assess which elements are typical of population and which are not.
Benefits of Sampling and Census
Proper sampling means reaching the right audience in large enough numbers to be
confident that you know what your market feels and thinks. Sloppy sampling causes
sampling errors which, in turn, will render the most expensive and exquisite survey plan
and questionnaire worthless because the “wrong people” responded (or didn’t respond).

Sampling Census
Lower Cost Greater acceptance of results
Faster Data for entire small populations may be obtained
More in-depth analysis No random sampling error
possible
Practicality Does not require the use of complex theory to select a
representative sample or in analyzing results
Greater confidentiality Data may be reported on every segment in the
population
Greater accuracy Subtle differences become apparent
There are two basic types of sampling errors – systemic and random. Systemic errors
occur when the sample selected reflects a bias, in other words, does not reflect the range
of findings for the whole market. Systemic error can be greatly reduced by carefully
estimating the market – what the key segments are and the relative sizes of them.
Random error is the other sampling error – and the most common. It relates directly to
the size of the sample – and is basically a mathematical predictor of precision. A general
rule of thumb: as sample size increases, random sampling error decreases. Of note,
quantitative researchers and statisticians claim that a carefully selected sample may yield
lower total error than a census – attempting to survey the entire population. A carefully
selected small sample can be more accurate than a less-carefully selected large sample.