Unit 2

Chapter 3
Corrosion of aerospace metals
Introduction

Corrosion is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material

and its environment that leads to damage of the material. It reduces workability of
material.

Corrosion Corrosion at aircraft surface

Corrosion of metals cost every industry including aviation sector. It is very expensive problem
and therefore large sum of money is invested for ongoing research for corrosion resistant
material of metals used in aircraft structures and engines. Despite the large sums of money
spent on corrosion prevention, it remains a common cause of damage to metal components.

Corrosion accounts for about 25% of all metal component failures on aircraft; only fatigue is
responsible for more failures than corrosion. The risk and cost of corrosion damage increases
with the age of the aircraft, with the hours spent on corrosion maintenance often higher than
the actual flight hours for many old aircraft.

A corrosive fluid is usually involved in corrosion with the most common being water which
contains reactive chemicals (such as chloride ions). Moisture condenses on metal surfaces and
enters the inside surface of the fuselage and around the lavatories and galley, causing corrosion
in often hard-to-access areas. The low humidity (under 5–8%) inside pressurized aluminum
fuselages helps minimize condensation, although the dry air affects the comfort of passengers.

Corrosion of metal aircraft components can range in severity from superficial discoloration to
severe pitting and cracking that can cause sudden, catastrophic failure.
Common examples of corrosion damage to aircraft include

 corrosion thinning at fastened joints owing to water intrusion;

 pitting of exterior skins;
 stress-corrosion cracking at drilled holes,
 cut-outs and other geometric stress raisers; and
 corrosion of fuel tanks.

Many factors that affect the corrosion are:

 composition, metallurgical properties and heat treatment of the metal alloy;

 type of surface films and protective systems on the metal;
 presence of stresses, voids and other defects in the metal;
 composition and concentration of the corrosive liquid or gas; and
 temperature and humidity of the environment.

NDT (non-destructive testing) at regular interval is necessary for full life of aircraft. The time
between inspections becomes shorter as the aircraft becomes older which increases the
maintenance cost. Interestingly, aluminum doesn’t corrode, unlike other metals, even
though it is reactive. This is because aluminum is covered by a layer of aluminum oxide
already. This layer of aluminum oxide protects it from further corrosion.

Environmental factors that increase Corrosion

salt
water

CO2, SO2
NaCl
corrosio , SO3
n
caused
by high
humidity temperat
ure
acid in
atmosphe
re

1. Presence of CO2, SO2, SO3 etc. in air.

2. Exposure of metals to moisture/humidity, especially salt water increases the rate of
corrosion.
3. Presence of impurities like salt (chloride ions such as NaCl).
4. Temperature: An increase in temperature increases corrosion.
5. Presence of acid in the atmosphere: Acids can easily accelerate the process of
corrosion.
Important to note: Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: Some oxides like Al 2O3 form
an insoluble protecting layer that can prevent further corrosion. Others, like rust, easily
crumble and expose the rest of the metal.

Types of Corrosion

General or uniform Corrosion

Stress Corrosion Cracking
Galvanic Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
Pitting Corrosion
Intergranular Corrosion
Corrosion
Hydrogen Grooving
Microbial Corrosion
High-temperature Corrosion
Metal Dusting
Fretting corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion

General or Uniform This is most common form of corrosion and

has a relatively low impact on material.
Corrosion

This type surface of the metal

is attacked by corrosiveness
of atmosphere. The extent of
the corrosion is easily visible.

For example, a piece of zinc and steel immersed in diluted sulphuric acid
would usually dissolve over its entire surface at a constant rate.
 Stress Corrosion Stress corrosion cracking can be abbreviated
to ‘SCC’
Cracking

It refers to the cracking of the metal as a

result of the corrosive environment and the
tensile stress placed on the metal. It often
occurs at high temperatures.

For example, stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel in

chloride solution.

a) Galvanic Corrosion

When there exists an electric contact between two metals that are electrochemically
dissimilar and are in an electrolytic environment, galvanic corrosion can arise. It refers
to the degradation of one of these metals at a joint or at a junction. A good example of
this type of corrosion would be the degradation that occurs when copper, in a salt-water
environment, comes in contact with steel.
 b) Crevice Corrosion

Whenever there is a difference in ionic concentration between any two local areas of a
metal, a localized form of corrosion known as crevice corrosion can occur. For instance,
this form of corrosion mostly occurs in confined spaces (crevices). Examples of areas
where crevice corrosion can occur are gaskets, the undersurface of washers, and bolt
heads. All grades of aluminium alloys and stainless steels also undergo crevice
corrosion. This is mainly because of the formation of a differential aeration cell that
leads to the formation of corrosion inside the crevices.

(e) Pitting Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion is very unpredictable and, therefore, is difficult to detect. It is

considered one of the most dangerous types of corrosion. It occurs at a local point and
proceeds with the formation of a corrosion cell surrounded by the normal metallic
surface. Once this ‘pit’ is formed, it continues to grow and can take various shapes. The
pit slowly penetrates metal from the surface in a vertical direction, eventually leading to
structural failure if left unchecked.

For example, consider a droplet of water on a steel surface, pitting will initiate at the
centre of the water droplet (anodic site).

(f) Intergranular Corrosion

Intergranular corrosion occurs due to the presence of impurities in the grain boundaries
that separate the grain formed during the solidification of the metal alloy. It can also
occur via the depletion or enrichment of the alloy at these grain boundaries.

For example, Aluminum-base alloys are affected by IGC.

(g) Hydrogen Grooving

This is a corrosion of the piping by grooves that are formed due to the interaction of a
corrosive agent, corroded pipe constituents, and hydrogen gas bubbles. The bubbles
usually remove the protective coating once it comes in contact with the material.

(h) Microbial Corrosion

Microbial corrosion, which is also known as microbiologically influenced corrosion

(MIC), is a type of corrosion that is caused by microorganisms. The most common one
is chemoautotrophs. Both metallic and non-metallic materials, either in the presence or
absence of oxygen, can be affected by this corrosion.

(i) High-temperature Corrosion

High-temperature corrosion, as the name suggests, is a type of corrosion of materials
(mostly metals) due to heating. Chemical deterioration of metal can occur due to a hot
atmosphere that contains gases such as oxygen, sulphur, or other compounds. These
compounds are capable of oxidising the materials (metals in this case) easily. For
example, materials used in car engines have to resist sustained periods at high
temperatures, during which they can be affected by an atmosphere containing corrosive
products of combustion.

(j) Metal Dusting

Metal dusting is a damaging form of corrosion that occurs when vulnerable materials
are exposed to certain environments with high carbon activities, including synthesis gas.
The corrosion results in the break-up of bulk metal to metal powder. Corrosion occurs
as a graphite layer is deposited on the surface of the metals from carbon monoxide
(CO) in the vapour phase. This graphite layer then goes on to form meta-stable M 3C
species (where M is a metal) that usually move away from the metal surface. In some
cases, no M3C species may be observed. This means that the metal atoms have been
directly transferred into the graphite layer.

(k) Fretting corrosion:

Fretting corrosion, which is also called friction oxidation or wear oxidation among
several other terms, involves the deterioration of contacting metals subjected to
vibration or slip. The fretting (or rubbing) action results in fine particle fragments
being abraded from one or both materials. These fragments oxidise into hard,
abrasive particles which wear and destroy the metal surface.

For example, the fretting of aluminium produces aluminium oxide (Al2O3)

particles that are many times harder than the metal surface. The process is
considered corrosive because the metal particles must oxidise, which is a form of
dry corrosion.

(l) Exfoliation corrosion

Exfoliation corrosion is a form of corrosion that spreads along a

multitude of planes parallel to the direction of rolling or extrusion.
Between these planes, there remain thin sheets of metal that, not
being attacked, are separated from each other by corrosion products
like the leaves of a book.
Prevention of Corrosion
Preventing corrosion is of utmost importance in order to avoid huge losses. The majority
of the structures that we see and use are made out of metals. This includes bridges,
automobiles, machinery, household goods like window grills, doors, railway lines, etc.
While this is a concerning issue, several treatments are used to slow or prevent
corrosion damage to metallic objects. This is especially done to those materials that are
frequently exposed to the weather, saltwater, acids, or other hostile environments.
Some of the popular methods to prevent corrosion include,

Corrosion Prevention Process

Methods

Electroplating
In this process a metal coating is produced on a solid surface
through the reduction of cations of that metal by means of
a direct electric current. Part to be coated acts as cathode and a
solid insert is used as anode.

Galvanization
In this process a protective zinc coating is applied over iron
to prevent rusting.

Anodizing
Anodizing is an electrolytic passivation process used to
increase the thickness of the natural oxide layer on the
surface of metal parts to make it more resistant towards
 corrosion.

Passivation
In passivation process a light coat is created on the
surface of a metal to create a shield against corrosion.

Biofilm Coatings
In the method, a protective biofilm is applied on outer
surface of a metal that reduces corrosion. The protective
biofilm is a bacterium that secretes a poly-anionic chemical
composition.

Anti-Corrosion
Many protective coatings are used in this method such as
Protective Coatings
paint, epoxy resins, binders, galvanization etc.

Painting and Greasing

It creates a layer on surface of metal to increase lubrication
so more corrosion resistant.

Use of Corrosion
Generally done by the coating of the metal surface with a
Inhibitor or Drying
Agents chromate layer to stop rusting anodic corrosion of material.

Periodic Cleaning of
In this process machining of the surface is improved,
Metal Surface
results in less prone to corrosion.

Stress-corrosion cracking
The inspection of airframes during routine maintenance often includes looking for
signs of stress-corrosion cracking.

Although stress-corrosion cracking is not the most common form of corrosion, it

does account for between 5 and 10% of all aircraft component failures. Stress-
corrosion cracking, which is also called environmentally assisted stress corrosion,
is caused by the combination of stress and corrosion.

The stress acting on the metal may arise from an external applied stress such as
structural or aerodynamic loads or an internal stress that comes from a variety of
sources during metal processing, with the most common being metal working
(such as rolling or bending), non-uniform cooling during heat treatment, and
machining without proper stress relief. Internal residual stresses often provide
the driving force for stress corrosion in many metal components.

Another potential source of stress in aircraft structures is fastener heads which

have been overtightened, thus causing stress-corrosion cracking in the material
underneath the fastener head. Failure by stress-corrosion cracking can occur at
stress levels well below the yield strength of the metal.

Stress-corrosion cracks often initiate at pits, notches or other stress raiser sites on
the metal surface in the presence of a corrosive fluid. The specific nature of stress
corrosion is complex and difficult to describe via a single mechanism.

. It is generally believed that when the stress is high enough then the passive
metal oxide film, such as the protective oxide (Al2O3) layer on aluminium alloys,
ruptures. A corrosive fluid attacks the underlying stressed metal by anodic
dissolution, thus causing a crack to grow into a branched structure.
At the same time, the applied or residual stress causes local plastic tearing at the
crack tip, thus increasing the crack size. Stress-corrosion cracking in most metals
occurs by this mechanism of anodic dissolution and plastic tearing at the crack tip.

An alternative mechanism involves the absorption of corrosive chemicals at the

crack tip; these break the strained metal bonds, thereby forcing crack growth.

Stress-corrosion cracks often grow along the grain boundaries or (less-often)

through the grains via a brittle-type mode of fracture. This is one of the problems
associated with stress-corrosion cracking; metals that normally fail by ductile
processes in a noncorrosive environment can fracture in a brittle-type mode.

A major problem with the stress-corrosion cracking process is that the cracks are
difficult to detect by visual inspection of the metal surface. Large cracks can be
present inside aircraft components, but be virtually impossible to observe by the
eye. Careful examination of the aircraft using nondestructive inspection methods
such as radiography is essential.

Stress-corrosion cracking only occurs when the applied or residual stress is above
a certain threshold. Below this threshold, the driving force for crack growth is too
low. Ideally, all aircraft metal components should operate in this low stress
regime.

The threshold may be increased by annealing the metal component to relieve the
residual stresses thickening the section. When the stress is above the threshold,
the time-tofailure drops rapidly with increasing stress owing to faster crack
growth.

Cracking often occurs move quickly when the metal is subjected to alternating
stresses rather than constant stress. This is a special case of stress-corrosion
cracking called corrosion fatigue, which occurs under the combined actions of
cyclic stressing and corrosion. The crack growth rate in corrosion fatigue is faster
and, in some cases, many times faster than the sum of the rates of corrosion and
fatigue when each act alone. The damage process is faster because cyclic
stressing tends to remove or dislodge corrosion products at the crack tip.

Corrosion products often slow the cracking process by acting as a barrier between
the corrosion fluid and crack tip. When the products are removed by fatigue the
crack growth rate is increased.
Stress-corrosion cracking causes a loss in failure strength, and is a potential cause
of component failures in aircraft. The susceptibility of metals to stress-corrosion
cracking or corrosion fatigue is determined by several factors, including alloy
composition of the metal; types and distribution of precipitate particles; amount
of strain hardening; and orientation and size of grains.

High-strength aluminium alloys are susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking when

exposed to water and many other corrosive fluids. Aluminium alloys that contain
solute elements such as copper, magnesium, zinc and lithium are prone to stress-
corrosion cracking. These alloying elements are present in the 2000, 7000 and
8000 alloys used in aircraft components.

The susceptibility of aluminium to stress-corrosion cracking generally increases

with the solute content. The resistance of heat-treatable aluminium alloys to
stress-corrosion cracking is also affected by the age-hardening treatment used to
promote precipitation hardening.

The change to the stress-corrosion resistance and strength owing to the age-
hardening treatment of an aluminium alloy. The resistance to stress-corrosion
cracking is lowest for the heat-treatment condition needed to achieve maximum
strength.

This occurs because the formation of CuAl2 and other precipitate particles during
age-hardening reduces the corrosion resistance of aluminium. Therefore, any
improvement in strength gained by the age-hardening of aluminium alloys comes
at the expense of lower resistance against stress-corrosion cracking.

The T7 heat treatment process, which involves thermally ageing aluminium

beyond the point of maximum strength, is often used to improve resistance
against stress corrosion cracking. In addition, it is essential that aluminium
structures are treated to resist stress corrosion by corrosion protective methods,
such as Alclad, which are described in the next section.

High strength steel components are also susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking,

and must be protected using a surface coating such as cadmium or chromium
plating.

Effect of corrosion on mechanical properties

Corrosion leads to the de-gradation of the mechanical properties of the material

and finally the failure of the material. Many safety measures are taken by the
designers to protect the materials from corrosion but still the failures due to
corrosion remain a major problem.

Major effects of corrosion on mechanical properties of materials

Mechanical Properties Effect

Strength decreases

Ultimate Strength

Tensile Strength
Toughness decreases

Fatigue Toughness
Hardness decreases
Ductility decreases
Malleability decreases
fatigue life decreases
Brittleness increases

The various materials which are affected by corrosion are metals, polymers,
composites etc. The material which is mostly used for structural work is metal,
therefore, metal are the most affected ones.

To protect the metals from corrosion many protective coverings and coatings are
done on them. Coatings slow down the process of corrosion and protect the
metals. Hence increase the life.

As the time passes these protective coverings break down and the metal comes in
contact with the environment.

 The more acidic the environment is, the more corrosion the metal
undergoes and that the corrosion reduces both the tensile strength and
fracture toughness of the metal.
 Corrosion reduced the ultimate strength of the aluminum alloy
considerably, even at low mass loss.
 After corrosion is initiated there appears to be a linear decrease in strength
with increasing mass loss.
 The fatigue life appears to follow an inverse exponential reduction in life as
mass loss increases.
  Similarly, the fatigue life decreases in an inverse exponential fashion with
decreasing thickness.
 Small amounts of corrosion reduce the fatigue life of the aluminum alloy
significantly.
 Specimens tended to fail more often at the bottom edge of the exposed
area in fatigue and tension due to more severe corrosion, which resulted in
a thinner cross sectional area, experienced at that location. This was more
evident at higher mass losses.
 Localized areas of corrosion existed below the visible corrosion surface.

Corrosion resistant materials

Examples of corrosion-resistant materials include: stainless steel, aluminum,

titanium, and some plastic materials. These materials are commonly used where
durability, longevity, and safety are critical, such as in construction, infrastructure,
and transportation.

Different materials resist corrosion in space differently. For example, aluminium is

slowly eroded by atomic oxygen, while gold and platinum are highly corrosion-
resistant. Gold-coated foils and thin layers of gold on exposed surfaces are
therefore used to protect the spacecraft from the harsh environment.

Corrosion resistant materials used for space vehicles

Materials for spacecraft structure are selected based primarily on the

specific strength (strength/density) and the specific rigidity (elastic
modulus/density). Other properties for consideration are ductility, fracture
toughness, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, corrosion resistance,
volatility, fabrication ease, and procurement ease.

The use of large amounts of magnetic materials is often undesirable from the
attitude control stability consideration and interference with the environment
during space physics measurements.

Aluminum alloys are widely used in any part of the structure, but graphite–epoxy
composite materials are also increasingly utilized for both the primary and
the secondary structures to take advantage of the superior mechanical
properties.
Gold and platinum are highly resistant to corrosion. They are the least reactive
metals and therefore, they do not react with air, water, acids, alkalis and other
gases in the environment.

Metallic Materials

Among the aluminum alloys, A 7075 and A 2024 find wide application
areas. Honeycomb sandwich panels and shells are composed of face sheets of A
7075-T6 or A 2024-T3, and honeycomb core of A 5052 or A 2024. Composite
materials are also used for the core, but the aluminum core is selected when
the higher thermal conductivity between the face sheets is needed.

Machined elements, like ring frames, flanges, fittings, and brackets are made from
A 7075-T7351 and A 7075-T7352. A 6061-T6 can be used for elements which do
not require high strength. Stainless steels (A286CRES, 302CRES, 305CRES)
and titanium alloys (Ti-6Al-4 V) are nonmagnetic materials and they are used for
small mechanical elements and bolts.

Magnesium is superior with its low-density and good vibration damping property,
but special care must be taken against corrosion.

Beryllium has very high specific rigidity and good thermal properties, but its use is
limited or sometimes not allowed because of its toxicity.

Composite Materials

Graphite–epoxy is the most popular composite material applied

to spacecraft structures. Strength and rigidity are provided
by graphite fibers which are imbedded in an epoxy matrix.

Material properties can be tailored, by selecting orientations and

contents of graphite fibers, for strength, rigidity, and thermal
expansion. Because the thermal expansion ratio of a graphite
fiber is very small, and sometimes negative, a virtually zero
expansion material at least in one direction can be fabricated.

The fibers are classified into high modulus type and high
strength type. The high modulus fibers are used for buckling or
rigidity sensitive elements and the high strength fibers for
strength critical elements. Aramid (Kevlar)-epoxy is also applied
to face sheets of sandwich panels or shells for electrically
nonconductive surfaces.
Adhesives and Fillers

Epoxy-type adhesives are often used to bond together independently fabricated

composite elements. Many composite structural members have metallic end
or edge elements, which are normally bonded by adhesives.

A sandwich panel uses an adhesive sheet to bond the face sheets and the core.
Some portion of a honeycomb sandwich panel must be reenforced
for compressive strength across the core element.

Epoxy polymer mixed with silica micro-balloons is inserted into the honeycomb
void as a filler material to strengthen bolt holes and panel edges.

Chapter 4

HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS AND ALLOYS

Heat treatment definition:

Heating metal or alloy to various definite temperatures, for various time

duartions and cooling at various rates.

This determines the nature of micro – constituents and grain size

Heat treatment operations control the properties of a metal or alloy through the
alteration of their structure.

Purpose of heat treatment:

To remove or relieve strains or stresses induced by cold working (drawing,

bending etc.,) or non – uniform cooling of the hot metal

To increase the strength or hardness of the material for improved wear resistance
: Hardening

To improve machinability : Annealing

To soften the material : Annealing

To decrease the hardness and increase the ductility and toughness to withstand
high impact : Tempering
To improve the cutting properties of tools

To change or modify the physical properties of the material

Eliminate H2 gas dissolved during pickling or electro plating.

Heat treatment process

Annealing: Heating the metal to a temperature slightly above the critical

temperature and then cooling slowly, usually in the furnace with the heat shut –
off.

Full Annealing: It involves prolonged heating just above the critical temperature
to produce globular form of carbide.

Process Annealing: To restore ductility at intermediate stages of cold reduction.

Stress Relieving: Relieve internal residual stresses induced by cold working,

machining, welding, casting, quenching. It is a sub critical anneal process. The
metal is heated below the transformation range (Recrystallization Temperatures)
and cooled slowly in air.

Normalizing: Heating the metal to the same temperature as that employed for
full annealing and then cooling in air

 Normalizing: Heating the metal to the same temperature as that employed

for full annealing and then cooling in air
 Often prior to Case – hardening

Quenching: Rapid cooling from above critical temperatures by immersion in cold

water or other cooling medium.

 Increases the strength and wear resistances, but makes the metal more
brittle and of low ductility.

Tempering: or Drawing consists of reheating below the critical temperature the

quenched metal to restore some of the ductility and reduce the brittleness.
Increased toughness is obtained at the expense of high strength.
Case – hardening: Hardening the outer portion of the metal by prolonged
heating, free from contact with air while packed in carbon in the form of bone
char or charcoal.

 The outer metal absorbs carbon and when the hot metal is quenched, the
high carbon steel hardens
 Low carbon steel of the core remains soft and ductile
 In Gas Carburizing, the metal is heated in the atmosphere of gas and
controlled so that the metal absorbs carbon from the gas but will not
oxidise on the surface.

Cyaniding: Cyaniding is case – hardening with powered pottasium cyanide or

potassium ferrocyanide mixed with potassium bichromate, substituted for
carbon. Cyaniding produces a thin but very hard case in very short time.

Nitriding: It’s a surface hardening, accomplished by heating certain steel alloys

while immersed in ammonia fumes.

Flame hardening: This is a hardening process by which either selected surface

areas or the entire part is thoroughly heated by means of a gas burner with
subsequent quenching.

Induction hardening: It is hardening of parts which follows induction heating,

heating the case portion or the entire part.

Aging: Age Hardening or Percipiration Hardening: the structure of the metal

recovers from unstable condition produced by quenching or cold working.

 The change in structure is due to precipitation of one of the constituents

from a saturated solid solution and results in a stronger and harder metal
but less ductile.
 Usually for Non – Ferrous Metals.

Heat treatment of carbon steels

As we know there is a little bit of steel in everybody life. Steel has many practical
applications in every aspects of life. Steel with favorable properties are the best
among the goods. The steel is being divided as low carbon steel, high carbon
steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel on the basis of carbon content.
Low carbon steel has carbon content of 0.15% to 0.45%. Low carbon steel is the
most common form of steel as it’s provides material properties that are
acceptable for many applications. It is neither externally brittle nor ductile due to
its lower carbon content. It has lower tensile strength and malleable.

Steel with low carbon steel has properties similar to iron. As the carbon content
increases, the metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile and more
difficult to weld.

The process heat treatment is carried out first by heating the metal and then
cooling it in water, oil and brine water. The purpose of heat treatment is to soften
the metal, to change the grain size, to modify the structure of the material and
relive the stress set up in the material.

The various heat treatment process are annealing, normalizing, hardening,

austempering, mar tempering, tempering and surface hardening.

Case hardening is the process of hardening the surface of metal, often low carbon
steel by infusing elements into the metal surface forming a hard, wear resistance
skin but preserving a tough and ductile applied to gears, ball bearings, railway
wheels.

Low carbon steel is easily available and cheap having all material properties that
are acceptable for many applications. Heat treatment on low carbon steel is to
improve ductility, to improve toughness, strength, hardness and tensile strength
and to relive internal stress developed in the material.

Carbon steel

Carbon steel (plain carbon steel) is steel which contain main alloying element is
carbon. Here we find maximum up to 1.5% carbon and other alloying elements
like copper, manganese, silicon.

Most of the steel produced now-a-days is plain carbon steel. It is divided into the
following types depending upon the carbon content.

1. Dead or mild steel (up to 0.15% carbon)

2. Low carbon steel (0.15%-0.45% carbon)
3. Medium carbon steel(0.45%-0.8% carbon)
4. High carbon steel (0.8%-1.5% carbon)
Steel with low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As the carbon
content increases the metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile and
more difficult to weld.

Higher carbon content lowers the melting point and its temperature resistance
carbon content cannot alter yield strength of material.

LOW CARBON STEEL

Low carbon steel has carbon content of 1.5% to 4.5%. Low carbon steel is the
most common type of steel as its price is relatively low while its provides material
properties that are acceptable for many applications.

It is neither externally brittle nor ductile due to its low carbon content. It has
lower tensile strength and malleable.

The various heat treatment processes commonly employed in engineering

practice as follows:-

ANNEALING:-

Spherodizing:-

Spherodite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 for over 30
hours. The purpose is to soften higher carbon steel and allow more formability.
This is the softest and most ductile form of steel. Here cementite is present.

Full annealing:-

Carbon steel is heated to approximately above the upper critical temperature

(550-650) for 1 hour. Here all the ferrite transforms into austenite. The steel must
then cooled in the realm of 38 per hour. This results in a coarse pearlite structure.
Full annealed steel is soft and ductile with no internal stress.

Process annealing:-

The steel is heated to a temperature below or close to the lower critical

temperature (550-650), held at this temperature for some time and then cooled
slowly. The purpose is to relive stress in a cold worked carbon steel with less than
0.3%wt c.

Diffusion annealing:-
The process consists of heating the steel to high temperature (1100- 1200). It is
held at this temperature for 3 hours to 20 hours and then cooled to 800-850
inside the furnace for a period of about 6 to 8 hours. It is further cooled in the air
to room temperature. This process is mainly used for ingots and large casting. It is
also called isothermal annealing.

NORMALISING:-

The process of normalizing consist of heating the metal to a temperature of 30 to

50 c above the upper critical temperature for hypo-eutectoid steels and by the
same temperature above the lower critical temperature for hyper-eutectoid steel.

It is held at this temperature for a considerable time and then quenched in

suitable cooling medium. The purpose of normalizing is to refine grain structure,
improve machinibility and improve tensile strength, to remove strain and to
remove dislocation.

HARDENING:-

The process of hardening consist of heating the metal to a temperature of 30-50 c

above the upper critical point for hypo-eutectoid steels and by the same
temperature above the lower critical temperature for hyper-eutectoid steels.

It is held this temperature for some time and then quenched. The purposes of
hardening are to increase the hardness of the metal and to make suitable cutting
tools.

AUSTEMPERING:-

It is a hardening process. it is also known as isothermal quenching. In this process,

the steel is heated above the upper critical temperature at about 875 c where the
structure consists entirely of austenite. It is then suddenly cooled by quenching it
in a salt bath maintained at a temperature of about 250 c to 525 c.

MARTEMPERING:-

This process is also known as steeped quenching or interrupted quenching. It

consists of heating steel above the upper critical temperature and quenching it in
a salt bath kept at a suitable temperature.

TEMPERING:-
This process consists of reheating the hardened steel to some temperature below
the lower critical temperature, followed by any desired rate of cooling. The
purpose is to relive internal stress, to reduce brittleness and to make steel tough
to resist shock and fatigue

SURFACE HARDENING:-

In many engineering applications, it is desirable that steel being used should have
a hardened surface to resist wear and tear. At this time, it should have soft and
tough interior or core so that it can absorb any shocks.

Case hardening is the process of hardening the surface of metal, often a low
carbon steel by infusing elements into the metal surface forming a hard, wear
resistance skin but preserving a tough and ductile interior. This type of treatment
is applied to gears, ball bearings, railway wheels.

The various case hardening processes are as follows:-

A. Carburizing

B. Cyaniding

C. Nitriding

D. Carbonitriding

E. Flame/induction hardening.

Light Metal Alloys

The term ‘light metals’ has traditionally been given to both aluminium and
magnesium because they are frequently used to reduce the weight of
components and structures.

The term ‘light metals’ has traditionally been given to both aluminium and
magnesium because they are frequently used to reduce the weight of
components and structures. On this basis, titanium also qualifies and beryllium
should be included although it is little used.
These four metals have relative densities ranging from 1.7 (magnesium) to 4.5
(titanium) which compare with 7.9 and 8.9 for the older structural metals, iron
and copper, and 22.6 for osmium, the heaviest of all metals. Ten other elements
that are classified as metals are lighter than titanium but, with the exception of
boron in the form of strong fibres contained in a suitable matrix, none is used as a
base material for structural purposes.

The alkali metals lithium, potassium, sodium, rubidium and caesium, and the
alkaline earth metals calcium and strontium are too reactive, whereas yttrium and
scandium are comparatively rare.

Characteristics of light metals and alloys:

The property of lightness translates directly to material property enhancement

for many products since by far the greatest weight reduction is achieved by a
decrease in density. This is an obvious reason why light metals have been
associated with transportation, notably aerospace, which has provided great
stimulus to the development of light alloys.

Aluminum and its alloys

Aluminium is a very soft light alloy and can be processed with simple tools. The
material is characterised by a long service life and good corrosion resistance, as
well as different surface finishes from high gloss to silver-matte. Because of these
aluminium properties, the metal is used in many applications.

Within the family of metals only silver, copper and gold have better electrical
conductivity. Also the thermal conductivity of aluminium is very high, while its
melting point is just above 660°C.

Anodised aluminium has an even higher corrosion protection than the untreated
raw material as a result of its special surface. In addition, aluminium is corrosion-
proof in the neutral pH range due to its oxide layer. Rust does not adhere to this
top layer since the light alloy is itself protected by this sealing layer.

Furthermore, no iron contents are present in aluminium. This has as result that it
is not magnetisable or is only paramagnetic, which means that it has no external
magnetic characteristics. An important property and difference in comparison
with steel and iron.
Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element with symbol Al and atomic number
13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic and ductile metal in the boron group.
By mass, aluminium makes up about 8% of the Earth's crust; it is the third most
abundant element after oxygen and silicon and the most abundant metal in the
crust, though it is less common in the mantle below. The chief ore of aluminum is
bauxite.

The unique combinations of properties provided by aluminum and its alloys make
aluminum one of the most versatile, economical, and attractive metallic materials
for a broad range of uses—from soft, highly ductile wrapping foil to the most
demanding engineering applications. Aluminum alloys are second only to steels in
use as structural metals.

Aluminum has a density of only 2.7 g/cm3, approximately one-third as much as

steel (7.83 g/cm3). Aluminum resists the kind of progressive oxidization that
causes steel to rust away. The exposed surface of aluminum combines with
oxygen to form an inert aluminum oxide film only a few ten-millionths of an inch
thick, which blocks further oxidation.

Appropriately alloyed and treated, aluminum can resist corrosion by water, salt,
and other environmental factors, and by a wide range of other chemical and
physical agents.

Alloy Categories. It is convenient to divide aluminum alloys into two major

categories: wrought compositions and cast compositions.

Many alloys respond to thermal treatment based on phase solubilities. These

treatments include solution heat treatment, quenching, and precipitation, or age,
hardening. For either casting or wrought alloys, such alloys are described as heat
treatable. A large number of other wrought compositions rely instead on work
hardening through mechanical reduction, usually in combination with various
annealing procedures for property development.

These alloys are referred to as work hardening. Some casting alloys are essentially
not heat treatable and are used only in as-cast or in thermally modified conditions
unrelated to solution or precipitation effects.

Applications :

Aluminum alloys are economical in many applications.

They are used in the automotive industry, aerospace industry, in construction of
machines, appliances, and structures, as cooking utensils, as covers for housings
for electronic equipment, as pressure vessels for cryogenic applications, and in
innumerable other areas. Typical applications for some of the more commonly
used wrought and cast alloys, respectively.

Ultra-lightweight alloys with high strength, ductility and corrosion resistance are
desirable for applications in the automotive, aerospace, defence, biomedical,
sporting and electronic goods sectors.

Ductility and corrosion resistance are generally inversely correlated with strength,
making it difficult to optimize all three simultaneously. Here we design an
ultralow density (1.4 g cm−3 ) Mg–Li-based alloy that is strong, ductile, and more
corrosion resistant than Mg-based alloys reported so far.

The alloy is Li-rich and a solute nanostructure within a body-centred cubic matrix
is achieved by a series of extrusion, heat-treatment and rolling processes.
Corrosion resistance from the environment is believed to occur by a uniform
lithium carbonate film in which surface coverage is much greater than in
traditional hexagonal close-packed Mg-based alloys, explaining the superior
corrosion resistance of the alloy.

Titanium and Its alloys

Titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.

It is a light, strong metal with low density.

Is quite ductile when pure (especially in an oxygen-free environment),lustrous,

and metallic-white in color.

The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal..

7th most abundant metal.

The world production of titanium is nevertheless very small, hundreds of

thousands of tonnes, which compares say with steel at 750 million tonnes per
annum.

Melting point = 1668c

Boiling point = 3287

Pure titanium melts at 1670oC and has a density of 4.51 g cm-3. It should
therefore be ideal for use in components which operate at elevated
temperatures, especially where large strength to weight ratios are required.

Commercially pure titanium

a. Hard anddifficult to machine

b. looses strength above 430 degrees Celsius
c. Burns in oxygen and nitrogen
d. Low electrical and thermal conductivity

Production

1. Reduction of ore to sponge

2. Melting of sponge to form an ingot
3. Primary fabrication into a billet/bar
4. Secondary fabrication into finished shape

Crystallographic forms of Titanium

a. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) or alpha (α) phase, found at room

temperature
b. Body centered cubic (bcc) or beta (ß) phase, found above 883 °C

Note: hexagonal alpha form changes to high temperature Beta very slowly above
880 degree Celsius.

Alpha alloys:

 creep resistance superior to beta alloys.

 suitable for somewhat elevated temperature applications
 sometimes used for cryogenic applications. (low temp)
 have adequate strength, toughness, and weldability for various applications
 are not as readily forged as many beta alloys
 cannot be strengthened by heat treatment.

Beta alloys:

 have good forging capability

 cold formable when in the solution treated condition
 prone to a ductile to brittle transition temperature
  can be strengthened by heat treatment; are solutioned followed by aging
to form finely dispersed particles in a beta phase matrix.

Alpha + beta alloys

 Alloys with beta contents less than 20% are weldable.

 normally have good formability ( Ti-6Al-4V is fairly difficult to form).

Heat Treatment of Alpha + Beta alloys

Solution treatment : components are quickly cooled from a temperature high in

the alphabeta range or even above the beta transus

Aging :

generates a mixture of alpha and transformed beta.

Microstructure depends on the cooling rate from the solution temperature.

Applications:

Titanium can catch fire and cause severe damage in circumstances where it rubs
against other metals at elevated temperatures.

This is what limits its application in the harsh environment of aeroengines, to

regions where the temperature does not exceed 400oC. 2.80% of all the titanium
produced is used in the aerospace industries.

Car suspension springs could easily be made of titanium with a great reduction in
weight but titanium is not available in the large quantities needed and certainly
not at the price required for automobile applications. The target price for
titatnium needs to be reduced to about 30% of its current value for serious
application in mass-market cars.

Pure titanium has excellent resistance to corrosion and is used widely in the
chemical industries. There is a passive oxide film which makes it particularly
resistant to corrosion in oxidising solutions.

The corrosion resistance can be further improved by adding palladium (0.15 wt%),
which makes hydrogen evolution easier at cathodic sites so that the anodic and
cathodic reactions balance in the passive region.
Some applications of titanium alloys

 Surgical Implants
 Prosthetic devices
 Jet engines
 Chemical processing plants
 Pulp and paper industry
 Marine applications
 Sports equipment

Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium is a chemical element with symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a

shiny gray solid which bears a close physical resemblance to the other five
elements in the second column (group 2, or alkaline earth metals) of the periodic
table: all group 2 elements have the same electron configuration in the outer
electron shell and a similar crystal structure. Magnesium is the ninth most
abundant element in the universe.

Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals (called an alloy),
often aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and zirconium.

Mg developments have traditionally been driven by aerospace industry

requirements for lightweight materials to operate under increasingly demanding
conditions. Magnesium alloys have always been attractive to designers due to
their low density, only two thirds that of aluminum. This has been a major factor
in the widespread use of magnesium alloy castings and wrought products.

A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion

performance and dramatic improvements have been demonstrated for new
magnesium alloys. Improvements in mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance have led to greater interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace and
specialty applications

Magnesium is the lightest common structural metal with a density of 1.74 g/cm3
in its solid state and Melting point (oC) 650.

It can easily alloyed with Al, Zn, Ag, Zr

The high strength-to-weight ratio of magnesium alloys is usually a prime reason

for considering these materials in engineering designs. High stiffness-to-weight,
castability, machinability, and excellent damping are desirable properties of
magnesium alloys that factor into the material selection process.

Limitations:

 Low strength and toughness and corrosion resistance. The strong galvanic
potential of magnesium and its weak surface oxidation make corrosion
behavior a major consideration
 Easily flammable with oxygen

Production of magnesium alloys

 Extraction of magnesium
 Fabrication of magnesium alloys
I. Calcination
II. Pidgeon process
III. Dow process

Extraction of magnesium

 • Calcination Heating MgCO3 to produce MgO and mix with petroleum

coke and then heat to separate O from Mg.
 • Pidgeon process (Thermal reduction method) Powdered ferrosilicon and
magnesium oxide are charged in a retort and heated under vacuum at
T~1200oC, giving Mg vapour, which is then condensed into crystals.
 Dow process (Electrolysis process) Precipitate dolomite and seawater and
treated with HCl to give MgCl2 and put in electrolytic cell to give Mg metal
at cathode

Key Properties

 Light weight
 Low density (two thirds that of aluminium)
 Good high temperature mechanical properties
 Good high temperature mechanical properties

Mechanical Properties

 Tensile properties. F temper: Tensile strength: 220 MPa (32 ksi) Yield
strength: 130 MPa (19 ksi) Elongation: 6% in 50 mm (2 in.)
 Compressive yield strength. F temper: 130 MPa (19ksi)
  Poisson's ratio. 0.35.
 Elastic modulus. Tension, 45 GPa (6.5 x 106 psi).

Effect Of Alloying Elements

Effects of Alloying Elements in Steel Alloying elements are added to effect

changes in the properties of steels. The basis of this section is to cover some of
the different alloying elements added to the basic system of iron and carbon, and
what they do to change the properties or effectiveness of steel.

1. Carbon:- the presence of carbon in iron is necessary to make steel. Carbon

is essential to the formation of cementite (as well as other carbides), and to
the formation of pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite,
with martensite being the hardest of the micro-structures, and the
structure sought after by knifemakers.
The hardness of steel (or more accurately, the hardenability) is increased by
the addition of more carbon, up to about 0.65 percent. Wear resistance can
be increased in amounts up to about 1.5 percent. Beyond this amount,
increases of carbon reduce toughness and increase brittleness.
The steels of interest to knifemakers generally contain between 0.5 and 1.5
percent carbon. They are described as follows: • Low Carbon: Under 0.4
percent • Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent • High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5
percent Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.
2. Manganese:- Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also
increases the hardness penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the
critical quenching speed. This also makes the steel more stable in the
quench.
Steels with manganese can be quenched in oil rather than water, and
therefore are less susceptible to cracking because of a reduction in the
shock of quenching. Manganese is present in most commercially made
steels.
3. Chromium:- As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase
hardness penetration. This element has many interesting effects on steel.
When 5 percent chromium or more is used in conjunction with manganese,
the critical quenching speed is reduced to the point that the steel becomes
air hardening.
Chromium can also increase the toughness of steel, as well as the wear
resistance. Probably one of the most well known effects of chromium on
steel is the tendency to resist staining and corrosion. Steels with 14 percent
or more chromium are referred to as stainless steels. A more accurate term
 would be stain resistant. Stainless tool steels will in fact darken and rust,
just not as readily as the nonstainless varieties. Steels with chromium also
have higher critical temperatures in heat treatment.
4. Silicon :- Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel. It
slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with
other alloys can help increase the toughness and hardness penetration of
steel.
5. Nickel :- Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the
strength of the steel. It is used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and
hardenability. Nickel also tends to help reduce distortion and cracking
during the quenching phase of heat treatment.
6. Molybdenum:- Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel,
slows the critical quenching speed, and increases high temperature tensile
strength.
7. Vanadium: Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By
inhibiting grain growth it helps increase the toughness and strength of the
steel.
8. Tungsten: Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free
carbides in steel during heat treatment, to produce high wear resistance
with little or no loss of toughness. High amounts combined with chromium
gives steel a property known as red hardness.
9. Copper : The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily
improves steels resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It should be noted
that with respect to knife steels, copper has a detrimental effect to surface
quality and to hot-working behavior due to migration into the grain
boundaries of the steel.
[Link] : In low carbon alloy steels Niobium lowers the transition
temperature and aids in a fine grain structure. Niobium retards tempering
and can decrease the hardenability of steel because it forms very stable
carbides. This can mean a reduction in the amount of carbon dissolved into
the austenite during heat treating.
[Link] :- Boron can significantly increase the hardenability of steel without
loss of ductility. Its effectiveness is most noticeable at lower carbon levels.
The addition of boron is usually in very small amounts ranging from 0.0005
to 0.003 percent.
[Link] :- Ti his element, when used in conjunction with Boron, increases
the effectiveness of the Boron in the hardenability of steel.

High Strength and Heat Resistant Alloys

High temperature, corrosion resistant alloys are mixtures of various metals,
including stainless,steel, chrome, nickel, iron, copper, cobalt, molybdenum,
tungsten andtitanium, that can resist high heat and corrosion more effectively
than standard carbon steel.

HEAT RESISTANT ALLOYS

Heat resistant alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt are used where high temperature
performance, particularly creep resistance, is required. These alloys have been
typically selected for gas turbine components such as blades, turbine wheels and
latter stage compressor disks, which are subjected to long term rotational stresses
and high temperatures.

Increased understanding of the alloy systems has permitted the upgrading of

forgings by mechanical and thermal treatment to satisfy requirements for high
strength in applications other than creep resistance, such as low and high cycle
fatigue and crack growth resistance.

Such alloys are designed to offer high strength at elevated temperatures. These
characteristics, which are desirable in the end product, make forging very difficult.
Furthermore, any additive that improves service temperature performance tends
to decrease workability. Alloy cleanliness also has a significant effect on hot
forgeability.

Alloy selection is generally directed at optimizing one or more of seven

properties:

 Creep strength
 Tensile strength
 Low-cycle fatigue response
 High-cycle fatigue response
 Fracture toughness
 Creep rupture behavior
 Cyclic rupture (creep-fatigue interaction) behavior.

An example of a forged iron-based heat resistance alloy is A286 (AMS 5737). This
and similar alloys are forged with practices similar in many respects to those used
for 18-8 austenitic stainless grades.
Because they are alloyed with reactive elements such as titanium, aluminum,
boron, or columbium, they respond to solution and aging cycles similar to the
specialty stainless grades.

Cobalt based forging alloys such as L605, Alloy 188 and N-155 continue to be
used. S816 alloys are still used for exhaust valves on gasoline and diesel engines.

The most widely forged true heat resistant alloys are Ni-Cr-Fe-based, such as
alloys 718, 706 and 625. More highly alloyed Ni-Cr-Co based materials like
Waspaloy, alloy 41 and alloy 500, which are very high strength and very difficult
to forge, are less widely used.

Forging process for heat resistant alloys are highly refined to control
temperatures, strain rate, strain and alloy condition. These controls are necessary
to achieve uniform critical properties, such as grain size, and other characteristics
after heat treatment

Some "super-alloys" such as Rene 95, IN 100, Merl 76 and low-carbon Astroloy
are best forged with a more complex process that includes the initial
consolidation of compacted billets of powder, followed by sintering, canning, and
then hot extrusion to develop the starting billets for forging.

This P/M (powder metallurgy) route precedes the use of isothermal or hot die
forging process to near-net shapes. These alloys contain less cobalt and more
reactive metals like titanium, aluminum, columbium, or tungsten. They tend to
form stable carbides that improve creep resistance at higher service
temperatures.

Heat resistant alloy forgings and processes are often computer modeled using
various commercial codes. Modeling reduces costly tryout and costly inputs, such
as material and die preparations, prior to tooling and process development. This
practice has led to some remarkable refinements in the forgings processes and
quality improvements.

Tool Steels

Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying

quantities to increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for
cutting and drilling equipment

Steel products can also be divided by their shapes and related applications:
  Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and
shapes and sections. These products are commonly used in the automotive
and construction sectors.
 Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils, and strips. These materials are
mainly used in automotive parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and
construction.
 Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as
piping materials.

Die steels

Die steels are specially alloyed steels designed for high strength, impact
toughness, and wear resistance at room and elevated temperatures; they are
commonly used in forming and machining of metals.

The main categories of these materials are described as follows:

High-speed steels (HSS), are the most highly alloyed tool and die steels and
maintained their hardness and strength at elevated operating temperatures.

There are two types of high speed steels: the molybdenum type (M series) and
the tungsten type (T series). As compared with the T-series steels, the M-series
steels generally have higher abrasion resistance, have less distortion in heat
treatment and are less expensive.

Die Steel EN31

Die Steel Round Bar is a high carbon Alloy steel that achieves a high degree of
hardness with compressive strength and abrasion resistance.
Die Steel D2
D2 steel is an air-hardening, high-carbon, high-chromium tool steel. It has high
wear and abrasion-resistant properties. It is heat treatable and will offer a
hardness in the range of 55-62 HRC, and is machinable in the annealed condition.
D2 steel shows little distortion on correct hardening. D2 steel’s high chromium
content gives it mild corrosion-resisting properties in the hardened condition.
Cold-work tool steels include the high-carbon, high-chromium steels or group D
steels. These steels are designated as group D steels and consist of D2, D3, D4,
D5, and D7 steels.
These steels contain 1.5 to 2.35% of carbon and 12% of chromium. Except for
type D3 steel, all the other group D steels include 1% Mo and are air hardened.
Type D3 steel is oil-quenched; though small sections can be gas quenched after
austenitization using a vacuum.

Die Steel D3
Cold-work tool steels which include D2, D3, D4, D5, and D7 steels are high-carbon,
high-chromium steels. Apart from D3 steel all group D steels have 1% Mo and are
air hardened. Type D3 steel is oil-quenched; though small sections can be gas
quenched after austenitization using a vacuum.

As a result, tools made with type D3 steel tend to be brittle during hardening.
Type D2 steel is the most commonly used steel among the group D steels. The
D3 steels contain 1.5 to 2.35% of carbon and 12% of chromium.

Die Steel SKD11

Molds for chemically aggressing Plastics & Plastics containing abrasive Filters.

Applications:
This steel is easy turning and should be made sharp knife, scissors, saw, cold or
hot for repair mode, the drum side, the screw pattern, line mode, cutters, impact
mode, circular cylinder, the system of power transformers heart dies, cutting steel
Paper mill knives, steel forming rollers, special molding roller, precision rules,
shape complexity of the cold tools, mandrels, m etallurgy, tin for mold, plastic mold, the
screw head molds.