Measurements

• The measurement of a given quantity is an act of comparison between the quantity (whose
magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.
• Results are numerical values
• Standard used for comparison- definition and acceptance
• Examples of Standards – International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
• The apparatus used and the method must be provable
• Advancement of Science & Technology is dependent upon progress of measurement techniques
• Measurement is needed for
• Design of equipment and processes
• Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes
 Methods of Measurements
Direct Methods
• We compare the unknown quantity directly with the primary or
secondary standard.
• Result expressed as a number and a unit (e.g. 50 Kgs, 100 Km)
• Deflection method - Value of the unknown quantity is measured by
the help of a measuring instrument having a calibrated scale
indicating the quantity under measurement directly, such as the
measurement of current by an ammeter For example if we want to measure the length
of the bar, we will measure it with the help of
the standard measuring tape or scale that acts
as the secondary standard. Here we compare
the unknown quantity directly with the
standard scale. The scale is expressed as a
numerical number and a unit.,

In the above example of measuring the length,

there is limited accuracy with which our eye
• Comparison methods - Value of the unknown quantity is determined can read the readings, which can be about
by direct comparison with a standard of the given quantity, such as 0.01 inch. Here the error does not occur
measurement of resistance because of the error in the standards, but
because of the human limitations in taking the
• Inaccurate due to human factors readings.
 Methods of Measurements
Indirect Methods
• There are a number of quantities that cannot be measured directly by
using some instrument. For instance, we cannot measure the strain in the
bar due to the applied force directly. In such cases, indirect methods of
measurement are used.
• In this method, the unknown quantity to be measured is converted into
some other measurable quantity. Then, we measure the measurable
quantity. For example, the strain can be measured in terms of the electrical
resistance of the bar.
• The indirect methods of measurement involve measurement with the help
of a transducer, which converts the quantity to be measured into an analog
signal
• The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is
then fed to the end devices which gives the result of the measurement.
What about Thermometers, Direct or
Indirect?
• Mercury Thermometers
• Digital Thermometers
 Modes of Measurement
• Primary -- The sought value of a parameter is determined by comparing it directly with “reference
standards”
• Secondary -- The indirect measurements involving ‘one translation’ are called secondary
measurements
• Tertiary -- The indirect measurements involving ‘two conversions’ are called tertiary
measurements.

The measurement of temperature of an object by thermocouple:

• The primary signal (temperature of object) is transmitted to a thermocouple which generates a voltage which is a
function of the temperature (first translation/ conversion).
• The voltage in turn is applied to a voltmeter through a pair of wires. The second conversion is then voltage into
length.
• The tertiary signal is transmitted to brain of the observer.
 Classification of Instruments
• Absolute Instruments
• Instruments give the magnitude in terms of physical constants of the instrument and its
deflection
• Eg: Tangent Galvanometer
• Time-consuming
• Seldom used except for standards institutes
• Secondary Instruments
• Quantity being measured can be measured by observing the output of the instrument
• Required to be calibrated by comparison with either an absolute instrument
• Commonly used
• Eg: Voltmeter, Glass Thermometer
• Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the
time when it is being measured
• Integrating instruments are those that measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity
(ampere-hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time
• Recording instruments are those which keep a continuous record of the variation of the
magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a definite period of time
 Classification of Instruments
Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

Tangent Galvanometer
• The magnetic needle is subjected to two magnetic fields: earth’s
magnetic field and current passing through the coil
• Value of the current to be measured in terms of tangent of the angle
of deflection produced, the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field, the radius and the number of turns of the wire used
• Under the action of two magnetic fields needle come to rest
𝑖 = 𝑘 tan 𝜃
k is the reduction factor
 Types of Instruments
• Mechanical
• Moving parts - inertia problem, mechanical friction, noise
• Not suitable for dynamic measurements
• Cheaper, rugged, simple, easy to use, no power needed
• Electrical
• Deflection is caused by the action of some electrical methods
• Use of mechanical parts as an indicating device – response time
• Operation is more rapid than a mechanical instrument
• Example - Galvanometers
• Electronic
• Improved response time (ms, µs) – response depends on electrons
• Use of vacuum tubes and semiconductors
• A very weak signal can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers
• Eg: A C.R.O. is capable of following dynamic changes of the order of ns
 Modes of Operation
Analog Mode
• Produce the signals that vary in a continuous way
• Infinite number of values in any given range
• Fuel gauge, ammeter and voltmeters, wristwatch, speedometer
Digital Mode
• Produce the signals that vary in discrete steps
• Finite different values in a given range
• Higher accuracy and high speed of operation than analog
• Eliminates the human operational errors
• Can store the result for future purposes
• A digital multimeter is the example of a digital instrument
Generalized Measurement System
 Elements of Measurement System
Primary Sensing Element
• Element that is sensitive to the measured variable
• Physical quantity under measurement, called the measurand,
makes its first contact with the primary sensing element
• Measurand is always disturbed by the act of the measurement, but
good instruments are designed to minimize this effect – Loading
Error
• Primary sensing elements may have a non-electrical input and
output, such as a spring, or may have an electrical input and
output, such as a rectifier
• In case the primary sensing element has a non-electrical input and
output, then it is converted into an electrical signal by means of a
transducer
 Elements of Measurement System

Transducers
• Device that converts a change in physical quantity into a change of an electric signal
quantity.
Signal Conditioning
• Amplification to convert a small low voltage input signal into a high voltage output signal,
Filtering
Variable Conversion Elements
• From primary sensing element, the output is in the form of an electrical signal, may be
voltage, current, or frequency, which may or may not be accepted by the system
• It may be necessary to convert this output to some other suitable form while retaining the
information content of the original signal.
• Example: if the output is in analog form and the next step of the system accepts only in
digital form then an analog-to-digital converter will be employed.
 Elements of Measurement System

Manipulation Elements
• Modulation
• Transformations
Data Transmission Elements
• The data transmission elements are required to transmit the data containing the information of the
signal from one system to another
• For example, satellites are physically separated from the earth where the control stations guiding their
movement are located
Data Presentation Elements
• Provide an indication or recording in a form that can be evaluated by an unaided human sense or by a
controller
• Simplest form of a display device is the common panel meter with some kind of calibrated scale and
pointer.
• Recorders like magnetic tapes or magnetic discs may be used for recording
Stages of Measurement
 Areas of Application
• Engineering Analysis
• To validate new designs of structure, component, or system by theoretical
and experimental approaches.
• Monitoring Process
• Monitoring process –provide online (real-time) data that allows the
operator to respond and make adjustments to control the process.
• Process Control
• Automatic process –provide on-line (real-time) operating data that are used
as a feedback signal in closed-loop control systems to control the process
continuously.
 Definitions of Static characteristics
• Accuracy
• Closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the
variable under measurement
• Precision
• Degree of agreement within a group of measurements or instruments
• Conformity and number of significant figures
• Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e.,
precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ
from one another.
• Precision is indicated from the number of significant figures in which it is
expressed.
• Significant figures actually convey the information regarding the magnitude
and the measurement precision of a quantity.
• More significant figures imply greater precision of the measurement.
Significant Figures
• More significant figures ---> Greater Precision
• If a measurement reports that the line voltage is 220V, it means that the line
voltage is closer to 220.0V than it is to 219.9 V or 220.1V
• Resistance value - (2 significant figures), (3 significant figures)
 Definitions of Static characteristics
• Resolution
• Resolution of any instrument is the smallest change in the input signal
(quantity under measurement) which can be detected by the instrument.
• It may be expressed as an accrual value or as a fraction or percentage of the
full-scale value.
• Resolution is sometimes referred as sensitivity.
• The largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument is called the dead zone of that instrument.
• Speed of Response
• Quickness of an instrument to read the measurand variable
• Time elapsed between the start of the measurement to the reading taken
• Depends upon the mechanical moving system, friction, etc.
Definitions of Static characteristics
Definitions of Static characteristics
Definitions of Static characteristics
Definitions of Static characteristics
Problem 1.1
• A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and
gives a full-scale reading of 5 A. The instrument can read up to the
IVth of a scale division with a fair degree of certainty. Determine the
resolution of the instrument in mA.

Solution: Full-scale reading = 5A

Number of divisions on scale=50
1 scale division =
Resolution = th of a scale division =
 Errors in Measurement
• Absolute Error
• Difference between the true or exact value and the measured value of the unknown
quantity
• , where be the measured and absolute value of the unknown
equantity
• Relative Error
• Ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity to be measured
•
• If is small
• Limiting or guarantee errors
• Manufacturers specify the deviations from the specified value of a particular quantity
for the purchaser to make proper selection according to his requirements
• Limits are and
Problem 1.2
A 0-25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of full scale reading. The
current measured by this instrument is 10 A. Determine the limiting error in
percentage.

Solution: The magnitude of limiting error of the instrument

The magnitude of the current being measured is 10 A

The relative error at this current is

The current being measured is between the limit of

.
The limiting error =
Problem 1.3
The inductance of an inductor is specified as 20 H ± 5 percent by a manufacturer.
Determine the limits of inductance between which it is guaranteed.
Solution:
Relative Error,
Limiting value of inductance,
Problem 1.4
A wattmeter reads 25.34 watts. The absolute error in the measurement is
–0.11 watt. Determine the true value of power.

Solution:
Measured value
Absolute error
True value A= Measured value – Absolute error
 Types of Error
• Gross Error
• Mistakes in observed readings, or using instruments and in recording and
calculating measurement results
• Human mistakes and cannot be subjected to mathematical treatment
• Take, at least two, three or more readings of the measurand quantity should be
taken by different observers. If the readings differ by large amount, the
situation can be investigated and the more erroneous readings eliminated

• Random Error
• Variable magnitude and sign and do not maintain any known law
• Effect of random errors is minimized by measuring the given quantity many
times under the same conditions and calculating the arithmetical mean
 Types of Error
• Systematic Error
• Errors that remain constant or change according to a definite law on repeated measurement of
the given quantity
• Instrumental error
• Due to the mechanical structure and calibration or operation of the apparatus used
• Select a proper measuring device for the particular application
• Calibrate the measuring device or instrument against a standard
• Apply correction factors after determining the magnitude of instrumental errors
• Environmental error
• Due to using an instrument in different conditions than in which it was assembled and
calibrated
• Errors change with time in an unpredictable manner
• Use the measuring instrument in the same atmospheric conditions in which it was
assembled and calibrated
• If the above precaution is not possible then deviation in local conditions must be
determined and suitable compensations are applied in the instrumental reading.
• Automatic compensation, employing sophisticated devices for such deviations, is also
possible.
Dynamic Characteristics
An example is a thermometer or
thermocouple that must undergo a
heat transfer process for its reading
to respond to a changing input
temperature.
 Particular solution

General solution

Homogeneous solution
 Second order Instrument Instruments that exhibit a
spring–mass type of
behavior are second-order

Dividing both sides by 𝑎

Damping factor Natural Frequency Static gain

Underdamped

Critically
Damped
Most instruments are designed with damping
Overdamped factors of about 0.7. If an overshoot of 5% is
allowed, a damping factor ζ=0.7 will result in a
response that is within 5% of the steady-state
value in about half the time required by an
instrument with ζ = 1
How to Choose a
Transducer?

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Input Characteristics
• Choosing a transducer depends on
• Input Characteristics
• Transfer Characteristics
• Output Characteristics
• Type of Input and Operating Range
• Type of input is decided in advance
• Operating range depend on the transducer capability
• Lower limit is decided by the transducer error or the noise
• Loading Effects
• The magnitude of the loading effect is expressed as force, power or energy
from the measurand
• Ideally no force, power or energy should be extracted

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Transfer characteristics
• Transfer Function
• Defines relationship between the input quantity and the
output
• , where and are the output and the input
of the transducer
• Sensitivity of the transducer is
• Scale factor is defined as the inverse of sensitivity

• Zero Error

• Observed output deviates from the correct value by a

constant value
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Transfer Characteristics
• Sensitivity Error
• Output deviates from the correct value
by a constant factor
• For a correct output the observed
output is

• Non-conformity
• Experimentally obtained transfer
function deviated from the theoretical
transfer function for almost every input

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Transfer Characteristics
• Dynamic Error
• Input quantity is varying with time
• Systems contain energy storage elements
• Output cannot follow the input exactly but with a time lag
• Let us consider an R-C series to which a step input of
magnitude E is applied, the voltage across the capacitor after
a time t of application of step input is

where = time constant

• Dynamic error is defined as
• Dynamic error can be made small by having a small time
constant
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Transfer Characteristics

• Error due to noise and drift

• Noise consists of a signal of random amplitude and random frequency
• Drift is a slow change in the signal with time
• Independent of the magnitude of the input signal
• Errors due to Change in Frequency
• Linear transducer – a sine wave input yields a sine wave output
• As frequency of the sine wave input is increased transducer is required to
respond more and more quickly
• Beyond a particular frequency output becomes smaller
• Roll off of amplitude of output with an increase in the input frequency is
frequency response

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Transfer characteristics (High Frequency)
• The high frequency cutoff ( ) is the frequency at
which the transducer gain has fallen to 0.707 of its
value in low frequency
• Transfer function and errors of a transducer is valid
when environment is kept constant so that
disturbances like
• Stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields
• Mechanical shocks and vibrations
• Temperature, pressure and humidity changes
Do not occurs

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Output characteristics
• Type of Electrical output
• May need data manipulation like amplification
• May need data conditioning line A/D conversion
• Output impedance ( )
• Determines to the extent the subsequent stages of instrumentation is loaded
• Ideally the output impedance should be zero
• Determines the amount of power that can be transferred to the succeeding
stages of the instrumentation system
• If output impedance is low compared to forward impedance of the system,
transducer has characteristics of a constant voltage source
• If output impedance is high compared to forward impedance of the system,
transducer has characteristics of a constant current source

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Output Characteristics
• Transducer as a constant voltage source
• Ideal voltage source gives a voltage at its output
terminals independent of the connected load
resistance or the current drawn from the source
• Practical voltage source has an internal
resistance
• Current in the circuit
• Voltage across load
/
• In case , and , source acts
as constant voltage source

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Output Characteristics
• Transducer as a constant current source
• Ideal current source provides a current at its
output terminals independent of the connected
load resistance
• Potential difference across resistance
• Practical current source has an internal
resistance
• Current in the circuit
/
• In case , source behaves as a
ideal current source

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Output Characteristics

• Useful output Range

• Limited at the lower end by noise signals
• Upper limit is set by the maximum useful input level
• Output range can be increased by the inclusion of amplifier
• Inclusion of amplifier increases the noise level

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain Gauges

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Basic Definitions
• Stress is defined as Force per unit Area
• Tensile strain is the fractional increase in length of an object due to a tensile stress

• Compressive strain is the fractional decrease in length of an object due to a compressive stress

• Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) quantifies the relation between stress and strain

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain Gauges
• The strain gauge is an electrical transducer

• Used to measure mechanical surface tension

• The change in the value of resistance by the application of force can be explained by the normal
dimensional changes of elastic material.

• If a positive strain occurs, its longitudinal dimension (x-direction) will increase while there will be a
reduction in the lateral dimension (y-direction).

• The reverse happens for a negative strain.

• Since the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area, the resistance changes.

• The resistivity of a conductor is also changed when strained, known as piezoresistive effect.
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain Gauges
• Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire.
• The wire has the dimensions: length L, area A, diameter D before being strained.
• The material of the wire has a resistivity ρ
• Resistance of unstrained gauge
• Let a tensile stress S be applied to the wire. This produces a positive strain causing the length to
increase and the area to decrease as shown in the figure below:

• Let ΔL = Change in length, ΔA = Change in area, ΔD = Change in diameter and ΔR is the change
in resistance

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain Gauges
• In order to find how ΔR depends upon the material physical quantities, the expression for
R is differentiated with respect to stress S. Thus,

• Dividing eq. above by resistance , it becomes

• It is clear from above Eq., that the per unit change in resistance is due to the following:
• Per unit change in length =
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain gauges
• Per unit change in area = and
• Per unit change in resistivity =
• Cross-sectional Area , therefore

• Or, putting this value of in above eq. , it becomes

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain Gauges
• Strain is defined as the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force
applied, divided by initial dimensions of the body
• Now, Poisson’s ratio is defined as:

• The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.
• Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Strain Gauges

where

Resistance Resistance Resistance change

change due to change due to due to piezoresistive
change of length change in area effect

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Example 1
A compressive force is applied to a structural member. The strain in 5 micro-strain. Two separate
strain gauges are attached to the structural member, one is nickel wire strain gauge having a gauge
factor of -12.1 and the other is nichrome wire strain gauge having a gauge factor of 2. Calculate the
value of resistance of the gauges after they are strained. The resistance of strain gauges before being
strained is 120 ohm.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Example 2
• A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge
factor is + 4.2. Neglecting the piezoresistive effects, calculate the Poisson’s ratio.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Example 3
• A strain gauge in bonded to a beam 0.1m long and has a cross-sectional area
. Young’s modulus for steel is 207 . The strain gauge has an
unstrained resistance of 240 ohm and a gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is
applied, the resistance of gauge changes by 0.013 ohm. Calculate the change in
length of the steel beam and the amount of force applied to the beam.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
The yield point on a stress-
strain curve represents the
transition from elastic to plastic
behavior in a material. Before
this point, the material will
return to its original shape
when the stress is
removed. After this point, the
material undergoes permanent
deformation.
Pressure Sensing Transducer

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Pressure Sensing Transducer

• The pressure, or force, measurement can be done by converting the applied pressure or force into a
displacement by elastic elements which acts as a primary transducer.

• The displacement of the elastic element which is a function of the applied force may be measured
by the transducer which acts as a secondary transducer.

• The output of the secondary transducer is a function of the displacement, which in turn is a
function of pressure or force which is the measurand.

• Some mechanical methods are used to convert the applied pressure of force into displacement.
These mechanical devices are called force summing devices.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Resistive Transducer
• The electrical strain gauges attached to a diaphragm may be used for measurement of pressure
• The output of these strain gauges is a function of the applied strain, which in turn, is a function
of the diaphragm deflection and the differential pressure.
• The deflection generally follows a linear variation with differential pressure 𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃
(when the deflection is less than 1/3 of the diaphragm thickness).
• One of the disadvantages of this method is small physical area is required for mounting the
strain gauges.
• Change in resistance of strain gauges on account of application of pressure is calibrated in
terms of the differential pressure.
• Gauges of this type are made in sizes having a lower range of 100 kN/m2 to 3 MN/m2 to an
upper range of 100 kN/m2 to 100 MN/m2.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Differential transducer
• The linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) is used as a secondary
transducer for measuring the pressure with bellows or bourdon tube acting as a
primary transducers, i.e., as a force summing device.
• The pressure is converted into displacement which is sensed by the LVDT and
transformed into a voltage.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Capacitive Transducer
• In this type of transducers, a linear characteristics can be achieved by using a
differential arrangement for the capacitive displacement transducers.
• The arrangement using three plates is shown in Figure.
• 𝑃 and 𝑃 are fixed plates and M is the movable plate to which the displacement
to be measured is applied.
• Thus, two capacitors are there whose differential output is taken.
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Capacitive Transducer
• Let the capacitance of these capacitors be 𝐶 and 𝐶 respectively, when the plate M is midway
between the two fixed plates, under this condition the capacitances 𝐶 and 𝐶 are equal.

𝐶 = and 𝐶 =

where 𝜖 is the permittivity of the medium between the plates, A is the Cross-sectional area of the
plates, D = Distance between the plates.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Capacitive Transducer

• An ac voltage E is applied across plates 𝑃 and 𝑃 and the difference of the voltages across the two
capacitances is measured. When the movable plate is midway between the two fixed plates

𝐶 = 𝐶 and therefore 𝐸 = 𝐸 = E/2.

• Voltage across C1 is 𝐸 = =

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Capacitive Inductance
• Voltage across C2 is 𝐸 = =

• Therefore, differential output when the movable plate is midway ΔE =

E1 - E2 = 0

• Let the movable plate be moved up due to displacement x, therefore the

values C1 and C2 become different resulting in a differential output
voltage.

• Now 𝐶 = and 𝐶 = Dr Saptarshi Ghosh

EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Capacitive Inductance

•𝐸 = = 𝐸= 𝐸

• And 𝐸 = = 𝐸= 𝐸

• Differential output voltage=Δ𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝐸 = 𝐸− 𝐸= 𝐸

• Therefore, the output voltage varies linearly as the displacement x

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Piezoelectric Effect
• Discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie during studies
into the effect of pressure on the generation of electrical
charge by crystals (such as quartz).

• A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential

appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of
the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical
force

• This potential is generated by the displacement of charges.

The effect in reversible, i.e. conversely, if a varying potential is
applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change the
dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it

• Common piezoelectric materials include Rochelle salts, quartz,

barium titanate Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Piezoelectric Effect
• Electrets are solids which have a permanent electrical
polarization. (These are basically the electrical analogs of
magnets, which exhibit a permanent magnetic polarization)

• Figure shows a diagram of the internal structure of a electret.

• In general, the alignment of the internal electric dipoles

would result in a charge which would be observable on the
surface of the solid.

• This small charge is quickly dissipated by free charges from

the surrounding atmosphere which are attracted by the
surface charges. Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Piezoelectric Effect
• Permanent polarization as in the case of the electrets is also observed in
crystals.

• In these structures, each cell of the crystal has an electric dipole, and the
cells are oriented such that the electric dipoles are aligned. Again, this
results in excess surface charge which attracts free charges from the
surrounding atmosphere making the crystal electrically neutral.

• If a sufficient force is applied to the piezoelectric crystal, a deformation

will take place. This deformation disrupts the orientation of the electrical
dipoles and creates a situation in which the charge is not completely
cancelled.

• This results in a temporary excess of surface charge, which subsequently

is manifested as a voltage which is developed across the crystal.

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
Piezoelectric Transducers (-contd.) EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP

• A piezoelectric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical

signals may be thought as charge generator & a capacitor
• Mechanical deformation generates a charge and which appears as a voltage
across the electrodes, i.e.

Q Q
Voltage, E 0   ... (1)
Cp ε r ε 0 A/t
 εA ε r ε 0 A 
 p
C : Capacitanc e between electrodes   
 t t 
 Piezoelectric Transducers (-contd.)
• The piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive, a tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity
while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity
• The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the magnitude
and direction of the applied force (F)
• The induced charge is given by
Q=dxF … (2)
where, d is charge sensitivity of the crystal (constant for a given crystal)
• If the force (F) causes a change (Δt) in thickness (t) of the crystal, then
AE
F  . t ... ( 3 )
where, A: area of the crystal, t
Stress F/A
E : Young’ s modulus  
Strain Δt/t
• From eqns. (2) & (3), we have

 t 
Q  dAE   ... ( 4 )
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP  t 
Piezoelectric Transducers (-contd.)
• From eqns. (1) & (2), we get

dF  d  F
E0    .t .
 r 0 A / t   r 0  A
 E0  g  t  P ...(5)
d
where, g  : voltage sensitivity of crystal (Vm / N ), P : Stress
 r 0
• We can write eqn. (5) as: E0 / t Electric Field
g 
P Stress

Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
The advantages of piezoelectric transducers are
• The transducer need no external power and is therefore is self generating.
• It has a very good high frequency response.
• Simple to use as they have small dimension and large measuring range.

The disadvantages of piezoelectric transducers are:

• It is affected by temperatures
• The output is low so some external circuit is attached to it
• It is very difficult to give the desired shape to this material and also desired strength

Application of Piezoelectric Materials

• In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into an electric signal and this signal is ultimately
amplified to produce a louder sound.
• Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid deceleration is also done using a piezoelectric
material.
• They are used for studying high-speed shock waves and blast waves.
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
 Exercises
Ex. 1: A quartz piezoelectric crystal having thickness of 2mm and voltage
sensitivity of 0.055 V-m/N is subjected to a pressure of 1.5MN/m2. Calculate
the voltage output, if the permittivity of quartz is 40.6 x 10-12 F/m, calculate
its charge sensitivity. (Ans: 165V, 2.23pC/N)
Ex. 2: A piezoelectric crystal having dimensions of 5mm x 5mm x 1.5mm and
voltage sensitivity of 0.055 V-m/N is used for force measurement. Calculate
the force if the voltage developed is 100V. (Ans: 30 N)
Ex. 3: A barium titanate pickup has the dimensions of 5mm x 5mm x 1.25mm.
The force acting on it is 5N. The charge sensitivity of barium titrate is
150pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 x 10-9 F/m. If the modulus of elasticity of
barium titanate is 12 x 106 N/m2, calculatge the strain. Also calculate the
charge and the capacitance. (Ans: 0.0167, 750pC, 250pF)
Ex. 4: A capacitive transducer uses two quartz diaphragms of area 750mm2
separated by a distance of 3.5mm. A pressure of 900 kN/m2 when applied to
the top diaphragms produces a deflection of 0.6mm. The capacitance is 370
pF when no pressure is applied to the diaphragms. Find the value of
capacitor after application of a pressure of 900 kN/m2.
(Ans: 446.5pF)
Dr Saptarshi Ghosh
EEE Dept, RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP
Magnetic Circuits
• Ampere’s Law

The line integral of the magnetic field

strength H [Ampere/m]around a closed
loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents that pass through the loop.
H

• Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density

• Faraday’s Law of Induction
Inductive Transducer
• This type of transducers has been successfully used as secondary transducers along with a
diaphragm for measurement of pressure.

• Figure shows an arrangement which uses two coils; an upper and a lower coil which form the two
arms of an ac bridge.
• The coils have equal number of turns. The other two arms of the bridge are formed by two equal
resistances each of value R.
Inductive transducer
• The diaphragm is symmetrically placed with respect to the coils and so when 𝑃 = 𝑃 ,

• The reluctances of the path of magnetic flux for both the coils are equal and hence the inductances of the
coils are equal.

𝑵𝟐
• Now, Initial self-inductance = , where 𝑵=Number of turns, and ℛ𝟎 = Initial reluctance of the flux
ℛ𝟎

path.

• Under this condition the bridge is balanced and the output, 𝐸 , of the bridge is zero.

• Now for any particular moment 𝑃 is greater than 𝑃 and therefore the differential pressure

𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃 , deflects the diaphragm upwards through a distance d.

• For small displacement of diaphragms, the reluctance of the flux path of the upper coil is ℛ = ℛ +
𝐾 (𝐷 − 𝑑) and that of the lower coil is ℛ = ℛ + 𝐾 𝐷 + 𝑑 ,

where K is a constant, D is the initial distance of the diaphragm from the coils and d is the displacement
of the diaphragms due to force.
Inductive Transducer
• Hence, the inductance of the upper coil

𝐿 = =
ℛ ℛ
• And that of the lower coil is
𝑁 𝑁
𝐿 = =
ℛ (ℛ + 𝐾(𝐷 + 𝑑))
• The bridge becomes unbalanced and the value of output voltage is given by
𝑁
1 𝐿 1 ℛ +𝐾 𝐷−𝑑 𝐾𝑑𝑒
𝑒 = − ×𝑒 = − ×𝑒 ≈
2 𝐿 +𝐿 2 𝑁 𝑁 2(ℛ + 𝐾𝐷)
+
(ℛ + 𝐾(𝐷 + 𝑑)) ℛ + 𝐾 𝐷 − 𝑑
• Since K, ℛ , D and 𝑒 are constant, the output voltage is directly proportional to displacement 𝑑,
of the diaphragm.
• Displacement 𝑑, is directly proportional to differential pressure 𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃
• Hence the output voltage 𝑒 may be calibrated in terms of the differential pressure 𝑃
Numerical Example
• For an inductive transducer, the permalloy based magnetic path has a cross-sectional area of 2 ×
10 𝑚 . The initial air gap distance is D= 2mm. When there is no pressure difference (𝑃 = 𝑃 ),
the bridge is balanced with an output of 0 V. When a test pressure causes a known displacement of
d=0.3 mm, the output voltage is measured to be 120mV with an input voltage of 10V.
a) Calculate the length of the core structure.
b) What would be the output voltage for a displacement of d=0.5mm?
c) Let due to a manufacturing defect, the upper coil has twice the turns compared to the lower coil.
Recalculate the answers in this scenario.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• Inductive Transducer
• Translates the linear motion into electrical signals
• The transformer consists of a single primary winding ‘P’
and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a
cylindrical hollow, non-magnetic insulated tube.
• A sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 3 to 15 Volt and
frequency 50 to 20000 Hz is used to excite the primary
winding .
• The two secondary windings have equal number of turns
and are identically placed on either side of the primary
winding.
• A movable soft-iron core is placed inside the hollow tube.
In practice the core is made of high permeability, nickel
iron.
 Construction of LVDT
• The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached
to the soft iron core
• The assembly is placed in a stainless steel housing to provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding
• Faraday’s Law of Induction -- A voltage is induced in a circuit
whenever relative motion exists between a conductor and a
magnetic field and that the magnitude of this voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of the flux
• By increasing the amount of individual conductors cutting
through the magnetic field, the amount of induced emf produced
will be the sum of all the individual loops of the coil
• Magnetic flux can be easily propagated in the iron – using iron
core increases magnetic flux density
• Lenz’s Law states that the direction of an induced emf is such
that it will always opposes the change that is causing it
 Operation of LVDT
• The primary winding is excited by an alternating
current source
• The magnetic flux produced by the primary
winding is coupled through the core to one or
both of the two secondary coils placed either side
of it
• It produces an alternating magnetic field which
in turn induces alternating voltages in the two
secondary windings.
• The output voltage of secondary 𝑆 is 𝐸𝑆 and
that of secondary 𝑆 is 𝐸𝑆
• In order to convert the outputs from 𝑆 and 𝑆
into a single voltage signal, the two secondary 𝑆
and 𝑆 are connected in series opposition
configuration, i.e., they are electrically 180 out-
of-phase with each other.
• Differential output voltage 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑆 − 𝐸𝑆
 Dot Convention

If at an instant, current is entering a coil through

dotted end then mutually induced emf on the other
coil will have the positive polarity at the dotted end
of the later.

if the current is leaving a coil through the dotted

end then mutually induced emf on the other coil
will have the negative polarity at the dotted end of
the later.
• Ideal Voltmeter at the Secondary Side:
• KVL at primary side 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝐿 =𝑒
• KVL at secondary side 𝑒 =𝑀 ,𝑒 =𝑀
𝑑𝑖
𝑒 =𝑒 −𝑒 = (𝑀 − 𝑀 )
𝑑𝑡
• Practical Voltmeter at Secondary Side:
• KVL at primary side 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝐿 = 𝑒 + (𝑀 − 𝑀 )
• KVL at secondary side 𝑀 − 𝑀 +𝑅 𝑖 +𝐿 =0
Operation of LVDT
• When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the secondary
windings is equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them.
• At null position: 𝐸𝑆 =𝐸𝑆 . Thus, the output voltage 𝐸 is zero at null position.
• Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with 𝑆 and less
with winding 𝑆
• Accordingly, output voltages 𝐸𝑆 is greater than 𝐸𝑆 .
• The magnitude of output voltage is thus, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑆 − 𝐸𝑆 and say it is in phase with
primary voltage.
• Similarly, when the core is moved to the right of the null position ES2 will be more than
𝐸𝑆 . Thus the output voltage is 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑆 − 𝐸𝑆 and 180° out of phase with primary
voltage.
• The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount
of movement of the core.
• Hence, we have an indication of amount of linear motion. By noticing whether output
voltage is increased or decreased, we can determine the direction of motion.
Operation of LVDT
• LVDT produces an output AC signal whose
• magnitude represents the amount of
movement from the center “null”
position
• phase angle represents the direction
of movement of the moveable core
• LVDT calibrated to produce a specific voltage
per millimeter, for example, 200 mV/mm.
• A core displacement of one millimeter
will produce a voltage output of 200 mV.
• If the phase angle of the output voltage
(0 or 180 ) is compared against that of
the primary coil excitation voltage (0 ) it
is possible to know which half of the
secondary coil the core is located and
thereby know the direction of travel.
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
• An LVDT has a secondary voltage of 5V and a range of +- 25mm. Find
a) The output voltage when the core is -18.75 mm away from the
centre. B) The output voltage when the core is moving from -18.75
mm to -10 mm.
• Sensitivity = = 𝑉/𝑚𝑚

• A) 𝑉 = 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × −18.75 = −3.75 𝑉

• B) 𝑉 = 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × −10 = −2 𝑉
Hall Effect Transducers

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 The Hall Effect
• Discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879
• When there is a Magnetic field in
the presence of a conductor a
voltage is induced due to electron
and hole drift
• Electron – negative charge carrier
• Hole – positive charge carrier

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Introduction
• The movement of electrons through the conductor is affected by the presence of an
external magnetic field which is at right angles to it (Lorentz Force).
• As the electrons and holes move sidewards a potential difference (Hall Voltage) is
produced between the two sides of a conducting material by the build-up of these
charge carriers.
• Generally, Hall effect sensors are designed to be in the “OFF” (open circuit
condition when there is no magnetic field present.
• They only turn “ON” (closed circuit condition) when subjected to a magnetic
field of sufficient strength and polarity
• The Hall Voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field
passing through it

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Hall Effect
q = + q for holes
= −q for electrons

B
VH
t +
EHp + +
EHn
W

I
+
Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
The Hall Effect.
When an electron moves
through a magnetic field it
experiences a sideways force
(Lorentz Force):

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵

q is electron charge
v is the electron velocity
B is the magnetic field
This gives rise to an potential
difference across an appropriate
sensor.
 Experiment

I=Nqv
w

b
fM = fE
𝐼 = 𝑁𝑞𝑣(𝑏 × 𝑤)
B B
+ ÷ qvB = qE ⇒𝑣=
𝐼
x x x x x x x x 𝑁𝑞(𝑏 × 𝑤)
÷
v f 𝐼
M + fE fM ÷ 𝐸= 𝐵
÷ ÷ 𝑁𝑞(𝑏 × 𝑤)
qv + qv ÷
+ ÷
Hall
E Geometry coefficient

b 1
𝑉 = 𝑏𝐸 = 𝑏 𝐵𝐼
V 𝑁𝑞 (𝑏 × 𝑤)

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Mathematical Expression
• The output voltage is
𝐾𝐻 𝐼𝐵
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑡
𝑉−𝑚
Where 𝐾𝐻 = Hall effect coefficient ( −2 )
𝐴−𝑊𝑏 𝑚
t = thickness of strip (m)
I = current ampere
B = flux density 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
The voltage produced may be used for measurement of either current I or magnetic
field strength B.

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Applications of Hall Effect Transducer

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Magnetic to Electric Transducer
• A semiconductor plate is inserted into the magnetic field to be measured
• The magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the semiconducting plate
• The transducer gives an output voltage is proportional to the magnetic
field density
• The system has the advantage of requiring a very small space in the
direction of the magnetic field
• Disadvantage: High sensitivity to temperature variation, Hall coefficient
vary from plate to plate and need individual calibration in each case

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Measurement of Displacement
• Ferro-magnetic structure having a permanent
magnetic
• Hall effect transducer is located in the gap
adjacent to the permanent magnet
• The field strength produced by the
permanent magnet in the gap is varied by
changing the position of the ferro-magnetic
plate
• Voltage output is proportional to the
magnetic field strength in the gap
• Magnetic field strength is a function of the
position of ferro-magnetic material from the
structure
Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 Measurement of Current
• The device measures current in conductor
without making electrical connection between
circuit and meter
• The current passes through the conductor and
sets up a magnetic field surrounding the
conductor (Ampere’s Law)
• Magnetic field is proportional to current
• A hall effect transducer is placed in a slotted
ferromagnetic tube which acts as a magnetic
concentrator
• Output voltage proportional to magnetic field
and hence proportional to current in conductor

Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 Measurement of Power
• The current is passed through the current coil which
produces a magnetic field proportional to the Hall
effect element current 𝑖
• This field is perpendicular to the Hall effect element
• A current 𝑖𝑝 proportional to the voltage is passed
through the Hall effect element in a direction
perpendicular to the field as shown in figure
• The current is limited by the multiplier resistance 𝑅𝑆
• The output voltage of the Hall effect multiplier is

𝐾𝐻 𝑖𝑝 𝐵
𝑣𝐻 =
𝑡
• Now 𝐵 ∝ 𝑖 and 𝑖𝑝 = (𝑣/𝑅𝑠 ) ∝ 𝑣
• Hence 𝑣𝐻 ∝ 𝑣𝑖
• The output voltage is proportional to instantaneous
power
Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Problem
• A Hall effect transducer is used for the measurement of a magnetic
field of 0.5 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 . The 2 mm thick slab is made of Bismuth for
−6 𝑉𝑚
which the Hall’s co-efficient is −1 × 10 and the current
𝐴−𝑊𝑏 𝑚−2
is 3A

Output voltage is
𝐾𝐻 𝐼𝐵
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑡
0.5
= −1 × 10−6
×3×
2 × 10−3
= −0.75 × 10−3 = −0.75 𝑚𝑉
Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
 Dr SAPTARSHI GHOSH
EEE Dept., RGIPT, Jais, Amethi, UP-229304
Acceleration measurement
(Operating Principle of Accelerometer)
Resistive (strain gauge),
Inductive (LVDT) and
capacitive transducers can
be used for displacement
measurement
 Gyroscope
Accelerometer
To measure or maintain an object's
orientation and detect rotational movement
Velocity Measurement
Linear and Angular
 Linear Velocity Measurement
𝑑𝜙
Emf induced in the coil : 𝑒=
𝑑𝑡
𝐹
Magnetomotive force (MMF) : 𝐹 = 𝜙 𝑅 => 𝑅 =
𝜙

𝑑 𝐹
Emf induced in the coil : 𝑒=
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝐹 𝑑𝑅
𝑒= 2
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑅 𝑙
𝑒∝ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 =
𝑑𝑡 𝜇𝐴

𝑑𝑙
𝑒∝
𝑑𝑡
Analog Transducer for Angular Velocity
Measurement
Example
AC Generator

As the rotor rotates, the stationary armature conductors are

cut by the magnetic flux. Due to the principle of
electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced in the stator
conductors.
Since the rotor poles are alternative in nature, the induced
emfs in the stator conductors are also alternating
in nature and their directions are given by Fleming’s rule.
Digital Transducer for Angular Velocity
Pg 1086 of A.K. Shawhney Book

Photoelectric Transducer

Inductive Transducer
Example
• A variable reluctance type tachometer has 60 rotor teeth. The
counter records 3600 counts per second. Determine the speed in
rpm.

No. of pulses per revolution = T

pulses per second 3600 pulses per second 3600 teeths per second
Speed = = = = 60rev/sec = 3600rev/
number of teeth 60 teeths per revolution 60 teeths per revolution
min
Example
An inductive pickoff operating from a 120 tooth wheel is used with a digital frequency meter to
masure the speed of rotation of the shaft on which the wheel is mounted. The gating period is
set to 104 𝜇𝑠 and a reading of 0030 is obtained on the four digit display. What is the shaft speed
in rps?

• What is gating period? Digital meters measure frequency by counting the number of input pulses
which occur in short period of time called gating period

reading of the digital meter 0030

• Number of pulses per second = = = 3000
gating period 104 ×10−6

number of pulses per second 3000

• Speed = = = 25rps
number of teeth 120
Force & Torque
Measurement
Force Measurement using Load Cell

above
 below

𝛥𝐿
For a given reading 𝐸0 and input 𝐸𝑖 , we can find 𝜀 = . Therefore, using Young’s Modulus
𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= , Stress can be calculated
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Torque Measurement using Load Cell (Torsion Meter)

below
below

below
How to measure 𝜙?
Derivation
Liquid Flow Measurement
Flow Measurement of Conducting Liquid
 Volumetric Flow Measurement of Conducting Liquid

Electromagnetic flow meters are often calibrated to determine the volumetric flow
of the liquid.
The volume of liquid flow, Q can be related to the average fluid velocity as
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
Writing the area, A of the pipe as

𝜋𝐷2
𝐴=
4
Induced voltage as a function of the flow rate

4𝐵𝑄
𝑒=
𝜋𝐷
If all other parameters are kept constant, then the induced voltage is linearly
proportional to the liquid flow only
 Flow Measurement of Non-Conducting Liquid

Heat generated by wire→ Convective heat loss to the fluid

Venturi Meter
 Potential Energy=Mass*gravitational field*height
Density=Mass/Volume

Continuity Equation:

Kinetic Energy=(1/2)*Mass*(velocity)^2
 1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉2
2 2
 1 2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉2 =
1 − 𝛽4 𝜌
Liquid Level Measurment
Direct Method
The float acts as a primary transducer that converts liquid-level
variation into a suitable displacement. Th is displacement
is sensed by the secondary transducer such as resistance type
of potentiometric device, inductive type of
LVDT, etc.

The float displacement actuates the arm that causes the slider
to move over the resisitive element of a rheostat.
Th e circuit resistance changes and this resistance change is
directly proportional to the liquid level in the
tank.
Direct Method
The float acts as a primary transducer that converts liquid-level
variation into a suitable displacement. Th is displacement
is sensed by the secondary transducer such as resistance type
of potentiometric device, inductive type of
LVDT, etc.

The float displacement actuates the arm that causes the slider
to move over the resisitive element of a rheostat.
Th e circuit resistance changes and this resistance change is
directly proportional to the liquid level in the
tank.
Indirect Measurement
A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plates separated
by a small thickness of insulator (which can be solid, liquid, gas,
or vacuum) called the dielectric. Th e change in the liquid level
causes a variation in the dielectric between the two plates,
which in turn causes a corresponding change in the value of
the
capacitance of the condenser. Th erefore such a gauge is also
termed a dielectric level gauge.

Th e magnitude of capacitance depends on the nature of the

dielectric, and varies directly with the
area of the plate and inversely with the distance between
them. Th e capacitance can be changed by any
of these factors. Th e capacitance is given as C (in μf) =
0.0885k/d (k = 1 for air). Th e capacitance would
be at a minimum when the liquid fi lls the entire space
between the electrodes.
Temperature Transducer
Introduction
• Application of heat or its withdrawal from a body produces various
primary effects on this body such as
• Change in its physical or chemical state
• Change in its physical dimensions
• Variations in its electrical properties
• Generation of an e.m.f. at the junction of two dissimilar metals
• Change in the intensity of the emitted radiation
• Any of these effects can be employed to measure the temperature of a
body
• Change in its physical or chemical state – used for standardization
 Slow Response, Passive Transducer, Linear Response
Resistance Thermometers/Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
• Resistance thermometers,
• Employ a sensitive element of extremely pure platinum, copper or nickel wire
that provides a definite resistance value at each temperature within its range.

• The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors in the

temperature range near 0°C can be calculated from the equation
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 (1 + 𝛼Δ𝑡)
• where 𝑅𝑡 = resistance of the conductor at temperature t (°C)
𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 = resistance at the reference temperature, usually 0°C
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
Δt = difference between operating and reference temperature
Resistance Thermometers
• Almost all metallic conductors have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance so
that their resistance increases with an increase in temperature

• Carbon and germanium, have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance that

signifies that the resistance decreases with an increase in temperature

• A high value of α is desirable in a temperature sensing element so that a substantial

change in resistance occurs for a relatively small change in temperature

• This change in resistance (ΔR) can be measured with a Wheatstone bridge, which may be
calibrated to indicate the temperature that caused the resistance change rather than the
resistance change itself
 Resistance Thermometers
• Resistance thermometers are generally of the probe type
for immersion in the medium whose temperature is to be
measured or controlled.
• A typical sensing element for a probe type thermometer
is constructed by coating a small platinum or silver tube
with ceramic material, winding the resistance wire over
the coated tube, and coating the finished winding again
with ceramic.
• This small assembly is then fired at high temperature to
assure annealing of the winding and then it is placed at
the tip of the probe.
• The probe is protected by a sheath to produce the
complete sensing elements as shown below
Resistance Thermometers
• A typical bridge circuit with resistance thermometer 𝑅𝑡 in
the unknown position is shown in Figure.
• The function switch connects three different resistors in
the circuit.
• 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 is a fixed resistor whose resistance is equal to that of
the thermometer element at the reference temperature
(say, 0°C).
• With the function switch in the ‘REFERENCE’ position,
the zero adjust resistor is varied until the bridge indicator
reads zero.
• 𝑅𝑓𝑠 is another fixed resistor whose resistance equals that of the thermometer element for full-scale reading of
the current indicator.
• With the function switch in the ‘FULL SCALE’ position, the full scale adjust resistor is varied until the
indicator reads the full scale.
• The function switch is then set to the ‘MEASUREMENT’ position, connecting the resistance thermometer 𝑅𝑡
in the circuit.
• When the resistance temperature characteristic of the thermometer element is linear, the galvanometer
indication can be interpolated linearly between the set of values of reference temperature and full scale
temperature.
Thermocouple Basics
Thermocouple Basics
 Thermocouple
• When two dissimilar metals are in contact, a voltage
is generated, where the voltage is a function of
temperature
• The device, consisting of two dissimilar metals
joined together, is called a thermocouple, and the
voltage is called the Seebeck voltage
• Joining copper and constantan produces a voltage
on the order of a few tens of millivolts, with the
positive potential at the copper side
• An increase in temperature causes an increase in
voltage

High Temperature Range, Active Transducer, Low Sensitivity

 Thermocouple
• There are several methods of joining the two dissimilar metals
• One is to weld the wires together
• This produces a brittle joint, and if not protected from stresses, this
type of thermocouple can fracture and break apart
• During the welding process, gases from the welding can diffuse
into the metal and cause a change in the characteristic of the
thermocouple
• Another method of joining the two dissimilar metals is to solder the
wires together
• This has the disadvantage of introducing a third dissimilar metal.
• Fortunately, if both sides of the thermocouple are at the same
temperature, the Seebeck voltage due to thermocouple action
between the two metals of the thermocouple and the solder will
have equal and opposite voltages and the effect will cancel.
• Temperatures to be measured are higher than the melting point of
the solder and the thermocouple will come apart
 Thermocouple
• In this case, where the two copper wires come in
contact there is no problem
• where the copper comes in contact with another metal,
such as the constantan thermocouple wire, the two
dissimilar metals create another thermocouple
• For this example, copper interconnecting wires were
used and the thermocouple was copper and constantan
• The composition of the wires is immaterial, as any
combination will produce these parasitic thermocouples
with the problems of additional Seeback voltages
• There will be at least two thermocouple junctions in the
system
 Thermocouple
• The temperature of one of the junctions be known and constant
• There is a fixed offset voltage in the measuring system
• In early times, it is mandatory to place this junction in a mixture of
ice and water, thus stabilizing the temperature to 0°C
• In the modern age electronic reference junction is used, and it is
called the reference or cold junction, because this junction was
traditionally placed in an ice bath
• The instrument has a precise temperature sensor (often an IC like
a semiconductor sensor) that measures the real-world,
uncontrolled temperature of your reference junction
• The instrument's microprocessor knows the type of thermocouple
you are using (e.g., Type K, Type J). It uses a mathematical model
(based on standard polynomial equations or a lookup table)
Thermistor
• Thermistors behave as resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
• The resistance 𝑅𝑇 of a thermistor at temperature T (Kelvin) can be written as
1 1
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 exp 𝛽 − (1)
𝑇 𝑇0
where 𝑅𝑇 and 𝑅0 are the resistances in ohms of the thermistor at absolute temperatures T and 𝑇0
• 𝛽 is a thermistor constant ranging from 3500 K to 5000 K
• The reference temperature 𝑇0 is usually taken as 298 K or 25°C
• Now the temperature coefficient of the resistance

1 𝑑𝑅𝑇 𝛽
𝛼= =− 2
𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
• At T = 298 K, the value of α is
4000
𝛼=− = −0.045Ω/°𝐶
2982
Where 𝛽 = 4000𝐾

Limited Temperature Range, Passive Transducer, High Sensitivity

Thermistor
• Equation (1) can be rearranged to the form
1 1 1 1
= − ln 𝑅0 + ln 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ln 𝑅𝑇 (2)
𝑇 𝑇0 𝛽 𝛽
where A and B are constants.
• Eq. (2) may alternatively be used to find temperatures by evaluating A and B from
two pairs of known values of RT and T.
• Thermistors are very popular as temperature transducers because
• they are compact, rugged, inexpensive
• their calibration is stable
• they have a small response time
• they are amenable to remote measurements
• their accuracy is high
Example
• For a certain thermistor β = 3100 K and its resistance at 20°C is known to be
1050 Ω. The thermistor is used for temperature measurement and the resistance
measured is 2300 Ω. Find the measured temperature.
• Solution: Here, 𝑅0 = 1050 Ω, 𝑇0 = 293 K.
Hence from Eq. (1), we get

1 1 ln 1050 ln 2300
= − + = 3.6659 × 10−3
𝑇 293 3100 3100

which gives T = 272.8 K

 Semiconductor based Temperature Sensor
• A fundamental property of silicon diodes is that the voltage across
them when conducting decreases at a very steady rate as their
temperature increases.
• Specifically, the voltage drop decreases by about 2.1 millivolts for
every degree Celsius that the temperature rises.
• The resistor provides a constant, fixed current through the diode.
• The value of the resistor is chosen to make the current exactly 1
milliamp (0.001 A)
• For example, if your power supply voltage (V+) is 5 Volts, you would
calculate the resistor as: R = 5 V / 0.001 A = 5000 Ohms
• Calibration
•Place the diode in a known temperature (e.g., in an ice bath at 0°C or at room temperature 25°C).
•Measure and record the voltage (V_ref) at this known temperature (T_ref).
• Calculate the Temperature: Now, whenever you take a new voltage reading (V_current), you can calculate the current
temperature using this formula:
Temperature Change = (Current Voltage - Reference Voltage) / (-0.0021)
Current Temperature = Reference Temperature + Temperature Change
Example: You calibrated at 25°C and measured a voltage of 0.70 V.
Later, you measure a voltage of 0.68 V.
Temperature Change = (0.68 - 0.70) / (-0.0021) = (-0.02) / (-0.0021) ≈ +9.5°C
Current Temperature = 25°C + 9.5°C = 34.5°C