The relation between Level of Development,

Information Exchanges, and Life Cycle Analysis

in BIM-based projects.

Oliver Ariel Arauz Arauz

Kevin Gallego

Examensarbete 2022
Building Technology

MAIN FIELD: Building Technology

AUTHORS: Oliver Ariel Aráuz Aráuz & Kevin Gallego Marín
SUPERVISOR: Gordana Asanovic
EXAMINATOR: Peter Johansson
JÖNKÖPING 2022-06-08
This thesis was carried out at Tekniska Högskolan in Jönköping in the main area of
Building Technology. The authors are responsible for the opinions, conclusions and
results presented.

Examinator: Peter Johansson

Supervisor: Gordana Asanovic

Omfattning: 15 hp

Date: 2022-06-08

Adress: Visit adress: Tel:

Box 1026 Gjuterigatan 5 036-10 10 00 (vx)
551 11 Jönköping
Foreword

To begin with, we express our gratitude to our examinator Peter Johansson and
supervisor Gordana Asanovic at Tekniska Högskolan in Jönköping for their high
ambition and cooperation throughout the various stages of this work.

We would also like to thank Matt Patterson at Tengbom Arkitektkontor in Jönköping

who believed in the concept of this thesis and provided knowledgeable insight.

Moreover, a big thank you to our friends and family for their support during the
different stages of this research and along our entire time studying at Jönköping
University. Finally, and definitely not least, thank you God, who helps and supports us
all.

Oliver Ariel Arauz Arauz & Kevin Gallego Marin

Jönköping, 2022

i
Abstract

Introduction – The building industry is evolving, this urges for innovative

methodologies to facilitate the construction processes including the information
exchanges between these to accomplish a sustainable future. In addition, new
requirements are being set by the Swedish government and other national authorities
with the objective of reducing the climate impact caused by the construction industry,
which is responsible for a large amount of carbon dioxide emissions. A helpful tool to
estimate the total carbon dioxide emission value is the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
which depends on the Information Exchanges (IE) and the Level of Development
(LOD) in BIM (Building Information Modelling) based projects to achieve a reliable
result. Therefore, this research aims to find a better understanding of the relation
between LOD, IE and LCA in BIM-based projects.

Method – This research is based on an authentic ongoing construction project (case

study), an assembled theoretical framework based on knowledge of the different
subjects: LOD, BIM, LCA and IEs. And how previous researchers have faced similar
issues. Also, on various thorough document analysis (BIM model and EIs) obtained
from the case study. The mentioned above forms a support basis for this paper.

Results – Two different BIM models were used to perform two LCA-simulations. One
formed with LOD 200 provided a generic presentation of the studied element, which in
this case was the model’s exterior walls. While the other model with LOD 300
generated a complex presentation of the model’s exterior walls. The simulation
generated a comparative data showing that the Low LOD model had a climate impact
value of 248 000 kg CO2. On the other hand, the High LOD model generated a climate
impact value of 137 850 kg CO2, resulting in a 45% difference. The results presents that
a lower carbon dioxide emission was caused when utilizing a higher LOD which
contains more complex and specific information. The results argue for that a BIM
model with the adequate amount of LOD is crucial for obtaining more reliable results
when performing an LCA.

Analysis – The results obtained from the LCA-simulations enhance the theories about
the importance of LOD when performing an LCA. Higher LOD in a model generates
more reliable results. Moreover, using a BIM software and an LCA plugin as tools
facilitate the various IEs in a project.

Discussion – The approach was limited to explore the environmental impact of one
construction element, exterior walls, and its different LOD. Also, only the stage A1-A3
was analysed. However, trustworthy results were obtained due to the use of reliable
data and research methods.

Keywords: Building Information Modelling, Information Exchanges, Level of Detail,

Level of Development, Life Cycle Analysis, Life Cycle Assessment.

ii
Table of content

Foreword ........................................................................................... i
Abstract ............................................................................................ ii
1 Introduction ............................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND .........................................................................................................................1

1.2 PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ...........................................................................................................3

1.3 PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS......................................................................................3

1.4 LIMITATIONS ...........................................................................................................................4

1.5 DISPOSITION ............................................................................................................................4

2 Theoretical Framework ........................................................... 5

2.1 CONNECTION BETWEEN RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND THEORY .................................................5

2.2 LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT (LOD) ............................................................................................5

2.3 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA) .................................................................................................8

2.4 INFORMATION EXCHANGES IN BIM-BASED PROJECTS.............................................................9

2.5 REPORT OF THE INFORMATION SEARCH .................................................................................10

3 Method and Implementation ................................................. 11

3.1 RESEARCH STRATEGY ............................................................................................................11

3.2 DATA COLLECTION METHOD ..................................................................................................12

3.2.1 Literature research ..........................................................................................................12

3.2.2 Document analysis ...........................................................................................................12

3.2.3 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) ................................................................................................12

3.3 THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE DATA COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES AND THE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS ...........................................................................................................................................13

3.3.1 How does the Level of Development (LOD) affect the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) in BIM-
based projects? ...............................................................................................................................14

3.3.2 How is LOD-based Information Exchanges useful for the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) in
BIM-based projects? ......................................................................................................................14

3.4 IMPLEMENTATION..................................................................................................................14

3.4.1 Literature research ..........................................................................................................14

3.4.2 Case study ........................................................................................................................15

iii
 3.4.3 Document analysis ...........................................................................................................16

3.4.4 LCA-simulations with Autodesk Revit and One Click LCA plugin. .................................16

3.5 RELIABILITY ..........................................................................................................................18

4 Results ....................................................................................... 20
4.1 EMPIRICAL DATA ...................................................................................................................20

4.1.1 Case study ........................................................................................................................20

4.1.2 Properties and Material...................................................................................................21

4.1.3 LCA-simulations...............................................................................................................24

4.2 ANALYSIS OF THE EMPIRICAL DATA ......................................................................................27

4.2.1 Analysis ............................................................................................................................27

4.2.2 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) ................................................................................................27

4.2.3 Level of Development (LOD) ...........................................................................................28

4.2.4 Information Exchanges in BIM-based projects ...............................................................28

4.3 RESULTS: RESEARCH QUESTION 1 .........................................................................................28

4.4 RESULTS: RESEARCH QUESTION 2 .........................................................................................29

5 Discussion ................................................................................. 30
5.1 RESULTS DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................30

5.1.1 Results discussion: Research question 1..........................................................................30

5.1.2 Result discussion: Research question 2 ...........................................................................31

5.2 METHOD DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................31

5.3 LIMITATIONS .........................................................................................................................32

6 Conclusions and Recommendation ....................................... 34

6.1 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................34

6.2 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ..................................................................................34

7 References ................................................................................ 35

iv
 Introduction

1 Introduction

Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a highly efficient and collaborative process

where various levels of efficiency can be achieved. BIM has in recent years changed
and facilitated the planning-, design-, construction-, and management of infrastructures
and diverse types of buildings by connecting the different disciplines (e.g., architects,
engineers) that usually are involved in a construction project to a unified shared
platform. In which all participants can exchange already provided information or input
new information to a common three-dimensional model, enabling participants to
partake of semantic and spatial data (Franco et al., 2015).

The flexibility with a unified shared platform has encourage more stakeholders to
develop their knowledge about BIM and thence achieve a higher level of BIM for their
projects. A higher level of BIM is defined as adequately structured and planned
Building Information Management where the different stages of a project are properly
defined by using different LOD. Followed by this comes the challenge of determining
which LOD is required for each construction phase along the life cycle (Alshorafa &
Ergen, 2019). The consequences of this are a lack of information in the BIM-models,
which in turn affect the construction planning and consequently the project at hand in
its later phase of the Life Cycle Analysis (Butkovic et al., 2019).

However, it is evident that BIM has become an essential tool for the different stages of
a project’s life cycle including its very early phases (Butkovic et al., 2019) where the
implementation of the tool is key to produce a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). LCA is a
methodology that aims to study the impact that a product or a process have on the
environment during its entire life cycle (Cabeza et al., 2014). The performance of LCA-
studies has gained greater attention due to the International Standardization
Organization (ISO) standards presented in 1990 to control and reduce the climate effect
value. Accompanying this, the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning of
Sweden (Boverket) have announced new regulations from the government to help
reducing the environmental impact in the construction industry (Boverket, 2022).
Which clearly states the relevance and necessity of LCA-studies during the design
phase of a project.

1.1 Background
For decades, the idea of shaping a sustainable society has been suppressed due to the
high greenhouse gas emissions caused by the construction sector (Buyle et al., 2013).
According to the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning of Sweden (2022)
the construction sector is responsible for around 20% of the total climate impact in
Sweden. Therefore, new regulations have been established alongside with a new law
decreed from the Swedish Parliament to reduce the environmental impact produced by
the construction sector. The new act affects conceived new constructions after the first

1
 Introduction

of January 2022 and obligates the developer/s to present a climate declaration for the
conceived new constructions (Boverket, 2021). These new regulations and law in the
construction industry brings higher interest in the performance of LCA.

LCA is an environmental management technique that, as mentioned before, has been

of more importance since the 1990s when the ISO presented new regulations known as
the ISO 14040 series (Ortiz et al., 2009). Which are based on the methodology of the
LCA (Cabeza et al., 2014). The purpose with a LCA is to analyze and study the
environmental impact that a product (e.g., building or building element) or a process is
going to have along its life cycle. Furthermore, its purpose is to deepen the developer’s
awareness, making them more aware of which choice of material increases the
profitability and the sustainability of a construction (International Standardization
Organization [ISO], 2006).

Rebitzer et al. (2004) and the ISO 14044 standard published by ISO (2006) highlights
the necessary steps when planning to perform an LCA. The process consists of four
steps: (i) Goal and scope definition, (ii) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), (iii) Life Cycle
Impact Assessment (LCIA), and (iv) Interpretation. Moreover, Franco et al. (2015)
mention that to fulfill the purpose of a LCA it is necessary to collect and input the right
amount of information. A tool that facilitates the way of collecting a products spatial
and semantic information is BIM. BIM is a collaborative and efficient process that has
gain significant interest provoking a compelling evolution in the AEC (Architectural,
Engineering and Construction) industry due to its effectivity for sharing construction
information between the different stakeholders.

A BIM project can be, as mentioned before, understood as a three-dimensional model

containing a certain amount of spatial and sematic data. The purpose of the model is to
facilitate the decision making in the project at hand, and its information flow during its
whole life cycle, being planning to demolition (Zhu et al, 2018). As the BIM model is
available throughout the whole life cycle, it must contain sufficient information for each
phase of the project at hand. The amount of information contained in a BIM model can
be defined with different LOD. Therefore, to enable the use of a BIM model in an LCA,
the necessary LOD in the model must be defined in the first process step (i) Goal and
scope definition (Boton et al., 2015).

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) proposed five levels of LOD. Starting from
LOD 100 which represent a generic model, up to the highest level, LOD 500 which
represents a “as in built” model with complete information (that is both semantic and
spatial information) (Boton et al., 2015). Furthermore, Abualdenien & Borrmann
(2019) explain that more levels are needed to fulfill the requirements of the different
LCA stages. To effectively utilize a model throughout its whole life cycle, it is
necessary for the model as well as for the LOD to constantly be used, evaluated, refined,

2
 Introduction

and updated. By doing so it remains usable along the different stages of the construction
process and the LCA (Butkovic, 2019).

1.2 Problem description

The construction industry is constantly evolving creating higher demand on higher level
of BIM as well as more implementation of the LCA during the planification of products
and processes. Furthermore, the LOD presented in a BIM model, which are needed to
accomplish the demand above, also takes a crucial role due to its significance during
the construction process and in the LCA performance. In the other hand, the
implementation of BIM contains a certain level of uncertainty when determining the
LOD required for each construction phase along the life cycle (Alshorafa & Ergen,
2019).

The recent reform in the building sector has triggered the interest of architects and
construction engineers for environmental inclusion and consideration in the early
design. To face this reform, the industry needs to obtain a deeper understanding of the
different options in material selection and design solutions to enable the evaluation of
the environmental impact of the construction. To enable that, BIM and LCA are tools
to adapt since both integrated increase the opportunity to influence diverse decisions
early in the design phase by evaluating and giving reliable feedback which in turn
creates significant possibilities to reduce a constructions environmental impact (Kamari
et al., 2022).

Therefore, the relation between these tools needs to be studied, both for the developer’s
interest and to sustain a sustainable building design.

1.3 Purpose and Research questions

This exploration aims to explore the relation between a BIM-model’s Level of
Development (LOD) and the Information Exchanges (IE) followed by it, as well as its
effect on the LCA.

To enable this exploration, the following research questions have been formed:
• How does the Level of Development (LOD) affect the Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA) in BIM-based projects?
• How is LOD-based Information Exchanges (IEs) useful for the Life Cycle
Analysis (LCA) in BIM-based projects?

3
 Introduction

1.4 Limitations
There are many IEs between the different actors that normally are involved in a project.
If every information exchange would be considered this exploration would become too
extensive for the given time frame. Therefore, only one building component (exterior
walls), followed by its LOD, IEs and LCA will be focused on.

Furthermore, no consideration will be taken with respect to the various process- and
execution maps that exist in a project. As well as the different responsible parties (e.g.,
architect, constructor) and their set goals regarding BIM use and its implementation. To
still enable the exploration these maps and goals are presumed to be properly defined
and the IEs are presumed to follow the Information Delivery Manual (IDM) standard
of ISO 29481-1:2010 (ISO, 2010). Also, this study excludes the Life Cycle Cost
calculations (LCC), interior equipment, interior finishes, furniture, and the calculation
of carbon dioxide emissions caused by other categories than climate impact. In addition
to this, neither the manufacture or the transportation of the machines that normally are
used in a project or the construction workers impact on the LCA is treated.

Also, the performed LCA will not focus on following stages, A4-A5, B and C since
these are considered to be post design phase. And too extensive for the given time
frame.

1.5 Disposition
The remaining parts of this paper consists of six main chapters which are divided into
multiple subchapters. The following chapter, which is the second one includes the
choice of method, its selected research strategy, and its connection to the research
questions together with its data collection technologies and implementation. While the
third chapter presents the assembled theoretical framework which the exploration is
based upon, as well as its connection to the research questions. Thereafter, the collected
empirical data and the results are presented in chapter four together with an analysis of
the collected empirical data. Following part, chapter five, presents the results and
method discussion. The last chapter, being the sixth one consists of conclusions and
recommendations which are based upon the theoretical framework and mainly, the
results. Lastly, this paper is concluded with a reference list and appendices.

4
 Theoretical Framework

2 Theoretical Framework

This chapter consist of the various assembled literature research that form the
theoretical framework that this exploration is based upon. The purpose with this is to
state a firm base that complements the research information as well as the results by
referring to other researcher’s approach on similar challenges.

2.1 Connection between research questions and theory

The research questions are connected to each theory as illustrated in figure 1.
Figure 1. Illustrates the connection between the research questions and the theories.

2.2 Level of Development (LOD)

LOD is the semantic and spatial data found in a BIM model. The purpose of LOD is to
specify which information the BIM model must have depending on the construction
stage (Boton et al., 2015). To specify the LOD is a crucial step due to the possible
negative outcomes that follows if not specified during the project, such as a delay on
the production and difficulties in the planning stage which is a critical stage according
to Butkovic (2019). Also, the specification of LOD is essential for BIM-led LCA since
each element in a BIM model is defined with its minimum content requirement at
various levels of completeness (Wastiels & Decuypere, 2019).

LOD refers moreover to the Level of Detail (LoD) and the Level of Information (LOI)
found in a BIM model. The LoD in a BIM model consist of spatial data while the LOI
comprise sematic data as visually presented in figure 2 (Butkovic et al., 2019). Both
LOI and LoD operate together to describe the maturity of the model at hand during the
different stages of the LCA. Which results in facilitating and improving the decision
making of different projects (Abualdenien & Borrmann, 2019). Therefore, it is critical

5
 Theoretical Framework

to determinate from the beginning which LOD that is going to be necessary for the
project at hand (Alshorafa & Ergen, 2019).

Figure 2. Illustrates LOD as the integration of LoD and LOI in a model.

According to Boton et al. (2015), five LOD levels are defined. Each level represents
different progressively detailed information placed in the model to help the user/s of
the BIM model to know the type of work that the model is limited to as well as what
type of objects are presumed be found in the model (Alshorafa & Ergen, 2019).

Boton et al. (2015) and Abualdenien & Borrmann (2019) highlights the five LOD levels
(see figure 3) proposed by The American Institute of Architects (AIA) as following:
• LOD 100: The model contains a generic representation of the product
• LOD 200: The elements in the model have an approximate representation
that displays a more mature model with mostly geometric but also some
semantic data. However, it still conserves the generic forms.
• LOD 300: The model is a more precise representation of the elements with
all the geometric data modelled with their size, shape, orientation, etc. It
contains some non-geometrical data as well. This level is the most suitable
and often adopted when creating diverse documentation for the
construction.
• LOD 400: The model contains additional sematic information relevant for
the fabrication, assembly, and installation of the elements in the model.
• LOD 500: The model is presented with specific and sufficient sematic and
spatial data, including materials and object parameters for each element in
the model. It is an “as in built” representation of the product.

6
 Theoretical Framework

Figure 3. The figure illustrates the five Level of Development (Description of the five
Levels of Development, no title, n.d.)

However, Abualdenien & Borrmann (2019) express that those five levels of LOD are
not enough to fulfill the requirements of the different LCA stages. Therefore,
intermediary levels such as LOD 350 are suggested to be added by Boton et al. (2015).
LOD 350 for example is an intermediary level that purposely includes requirements
that would not fit in LOD 300 or LOD 400. The objective of LOD 350 is to facilitate
the exchange of detailed information, such as collisions and preventions, among the
different disciplines (Abualdenien & Borrmann, 2019; Boton et al. 2015).

Furthermore, Kamari et al. (2022) points out that general information about different
elements geometry, location, and estimated quantities as well as still fluid parameters
are included in the early design phase at a LOD between 100-200. However, the LOD
100-200 is not sufficient to comprehensive a complete LCA. Nevertheless, one can with
that level of LOD obtain immediate and reliable LCA results (Antón & Diaz, 2014;
Kamari et al., 2022; Röck et al., 2018).

7
 Theoretical Framework

2.3 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

The concern of shaping a sustainable building industry has been present since many
decades ago. Different methodologies were proposed to study the effect that
constructions have on the environment, the method that gained most attention was the
LCA which since the 1990s has been used, following the published ISO 14040 series
standard, to study the impact of constructions during its entire life cycle (Buyle et al.,
2013).

As reported by Rebitzer et al. (2004) and ISO (2006), the process of making an LCA
consist of four phases:
• The goal and scope definition: The purpose of this phase is to specify the structure
of the product, its boundaries and functional unit depending on what the LCA is
going to be used for.
• Life Cycle Inventory (LCI): LCI is where the data of the products life cycle is
collected to meet the goal of the study e.g., the consumption of resources, waste
production, environmental impact, energy usage, etc. This is information that
needs to be verified during the describing and collection process.
• Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA): During this phase, the potential
environmental impact of the Life Cycle Inventory quantifies. Usually, this part is
divided into three steps (Jönsson, 1997):
1. Classification, the results of the LCI are distributed in the impact
categories chosen in the goal and scope definition.
2. Characterization, this refers to the calculation of the category
indicators. There is a variety of impact categories, one of them is
the Global Environmental Potential (GWP)
3. Valuation, this is a two steps point that according to Buyle et al.
(2013) are (i) normalization, where the result of the
characterization gets compared to other reference information and
(ii) weighting, which refers to the process of converting the same
results in a numerical factor.
• The Interpretation: this occurs in every step of the LCA and refers to the
conclusions taken from an LCI, an LCIA or both. These conclusions are
summarized and analyzed to later help in the decision making for the product
constitution to reduce the environmental impact according to what is stipulated in
the goal and scope definition phase.

It is important to clarify that the ISO standards only describe what should be included
in an LCA. They do not guide practitioners on how to perform an LCA or which
inventory database to use and which life cycle stage and impact category to analyze
(Kamari et al., 2022).

Performing a LCA in the design phase of a project entails greater opportunity to choose
materials and design solutions that reduce the environmental impact of the construction,

8
 Theoretical Framework

resulting in sustainable building design (Baumann & Tillman, 2014; Kamari et al.,
2022; Yang et al., 2018). Further, as reported by Röck et al. (2018) the interest of
performing an LCA in the design phase is increasing since an LCA evaluates products,
design solutions and can be used to improve a constructions whole life cycle
performance.

Yang et al. (2018) explains that to be able to reduce a constructions environmental

impact it is of most importance to take advantage of the flexibility of decision making
in the design phase of a construction, where changes on the design are the most
achievable and economically beneficial (Kamari et al., 2022).

There are several diverse strategies on how to perform an LCA on BIM-based projects.
For the sake of simplicity, only two are highlighted here, the most complex and the least
complex (Wastiels & Decuypere, 2019). This exploration focusses on the last
mentioned, which tends to be applied only on the early design phase and cannot match
the LOD, and its complexity in a detailed advanced BIM model used in a more detailed
LCA after the design phase (Cavalliere et al., 2019).

Since a thorough complete LCA requires complex and specific information the
construction industry have founded the adaption of LCA as extremely time-consuming
to apply. A clear example that causes difficulties in conducting an LCA is the inventory
data (LCI) available and the use of unreliable sources which have not been approved
by independent parties (LCIA). Therefore, to overcome the craving character of LCA
an integration with BIM and material databases can be utilized. This enables data inputs
to be automatically extracted rather than manually detailed (Kamari et al., 2022).

2.4 Information Exchanges in BIM-based projects

The evolution in the construction industry resulted in new challenges for the
information exchanges as the complexity of buildings increment and new actors are
introduced to partake during the construction process (Hjelseth, 2010). Moreover, the
industry is facing a digitized era increasing the pursuit of new methodologies for the
building development. BIM is a methodology that have taken a strong stand in facing
these challenges due to its effectiveness when creating construction models and for
exchanging information between the different stakeholders of the AEC/FM (Architects,
Engineers, and Construction/Facility Management) industry (Tang et al., 2020).

The value of the information exchange developed from being a limited formal exchange
to a more elaborated process that is often managed apart and delivered at different
stages of the LCA according to the projects demands. To ensure the effectiveness of the
process, the IE must occur as free from uncertainties as possible. Otherwise, it could
face challenges as to deliver the right amount of information at the right time. The

9
 Theoretical Framework

methodology of BIM is the tool applied in the attempt to solve the challenges with IEs
(Hjelseth, 2010).

The main objective of BIM is to facilitate the process of sharing information by using
a shared platform where all the stakeholders have access to a single 3D model that
contains a certain level of editable semantic and spatial data. The amount of data (LOD)
existent in a model is determined by the model’s purpose. Commonly, BIM is used for
displaying an optical representation of buildings and to produce construction drawings
(LOD 300) (Franco et al., 2015).

IEs considering the architectural design requires more specific IEs since the differences
in materials will provide compelling impacts on the LCA results. Further, the
digitization of BIM and the increasing interest of sustainable building design urges for
adequate information exchanges in the design phase (Wastiels & Decuypere, 2019).

2.5 Report of the information search

The information for the theoretical framework was collected from databases such as
Primo and Google Scholar. Search terms including Level of Development (LOD),
Building Information Management (BIM) and Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) were made
to find interesting articles. The sources were systematically and critically analyzed. For
a thorough explanation of the literature review see chapter 3.4.1.

10
 Method and Implementation

3 Method and Implementation

This chapter describes the selected research strategy that made this exploration possible
together with its data collection technologies. And their connection to the research
questions, followed by its implementation and reliability.

3.1 Research strategy

According to Säfsten & Gustavsson (2019) a case study, consisting of one or more
cases, is a qualitative research method that can be expressed as explorative since
thorough knowledge can be obtained over a specific field. Further, qualitative research
aims to understand a thought or a concept extensively by verbal analysis at a descriptive
level and/or by observations. Furthermore, this exploration has features of an
experimental nature since changes were made to the studied elements. However, as
those were not done to the extent of changing the specific field and its environment,
this exploration is seen to be dominated by the research strategy, case study.

To enable this type of research, data of a qualitative nature will be collected by using
the data collection technology observation, to analyze, understand and express answers
to exploratory questions such as “why?” and “how?” (Gerring, 2017; Säfsten &
Gustavsson, 2019). For the data collection an authentic ongoing construction project
will be observed and analyzed.

In addition to the data collection above, several analyzes of the case study’s BIM-
models, IEs, Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) and relevant documents will
be conducted. Since this will provide with further understanding of how related research
questions have been tackled before. Also, previous research literature from similar
fields will be systematically and critically analyzed to ensure that they are well
substantiated and justified to use as support for this exploration (Säfsten & Gustavsson,
2019).

Additionally, two LCA-simulations will be conducted based on the collected data

mentioned above. These simulations provide the study with quantitative data, resulting
in a research strategy that combine both quantitative and qualitative data. This
combination is according to Harrison & Reilly (2011) called mixed methods.
Tashakkori & Teddlie (2010) states that mixed methods can be used advantageously
since it enables generalization of observations while preserving a profound
understanding (Johnson et al., 2007).

11
 Method and Implementation

3.2 Data collection method

The data collection method used in this study consisted of a theoretical framework
assembled by various literature research, and by different analyzes of the case study’s
relevant documents. It also consisted of two LCA-simulations.

3.2.1 Literature research

The literature research was conducted to find relevant information and inspiration of
how other previous researchers have tackled similar challenges. However, this literature
research has mainly been conducted to assemble a theoretical framework which
generates a thorough understanding over the research field and the presented problem
(Säfsten & Gustavsson, 2019).

This was enabled through analyzing and collecting scientific articles, student literature,
government-, and company reports.

3.2.2 Document analysis

To profound understand the assembled theoretical framework, actual documents from
the case study needs to be systematically and critically analyzed to validate or negate
the collected information. By doing so the authors can determine if the gained
information is relevant. In addition, the document analysis provides support to the
theoretical framework and supplements the literature research.

Documents consist not only of text printed information, but they also include technical
solutions such as drawings, protocols, and models (both in paper and electronic format)
(Patel & Davidson, 2011).

3.2.3 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

Through an LCA-simulation a buildings environmental impact can be obtained.
Although there are several environmental impact categories, factors such as purpose,
method, scope, and boundaries require definition to facilitate the interpretation of the
simulations results. The LCA-simulations conducted in this paper aimed to analyze the
environmental impact category, climate impact in carbon dioxide. Which according to
Boverket (2019a) is todays biggest environmental threat.

To enable this simulation a factor called Global Warming Potential (GWP) must be
taken into consideration. This GWP-factor is estimated to 1 and can be used to convert
the obtained climate effect value to carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) as stated in
Boverket (2021).

12
 Method and Implementation

Further, as mentioned above, it is important that some factors are well defined to
facilitate the interpretation of the obtained results. In consideration to this, the LCA-
simulations in this paper aimed to analyze one element, being the exterior wall, which
is presumed to have been composed according to the building regulations of the
National Board of Housing, Building and Planning of Sweden. The element and its
diverse types are also presumed to be constructed with the same scope, method, and
boundaries (Boverket, 2019a).

Moreover, Boverket (2019b) explains that the life cycle of a product (e.g., building or
element) is divided into three main information module stages, initiating with A,
followed by B and C. This exploration only considers stage A1-A3, therefore, the
explanation of the other stages is excluded.
• A – The construction phase comprises the following:
1. The production phase (A1-A3) which consist of the production of the
construction products that will be used and their resources. This also
includes the manufacturing, processing, transport, and the extraction
of raw materials.

The elements will be analyzed by performing two simulations with two different BIM
models with different LOD (LOD 200 and LOD 300) for the same element. The
simulations were made possible by integrating the BIM software Autodesk Revit with
the LCA plugin One Click LCA (more follows in chapter 3.4.4).

3.3 The connection between the data collection technologies and the
research questions
Below the connection between the selected data collection technologies and the
research questions is presented.

Figure 4. Connection between research question and data collection technologies.

13
 Method and Implementation

3.3.1 How does the Level of Development (LOD) affect the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
in BIM-based projects?
By analyzing previous similar research literature, a theoretical framework has been
formed, which provides with knowledge about how others have faced related problems.
This framework also creates a well-detailed starting point which fulfills the supportive
role that is needed for conclusions and a thorough understanding.
Additionally, relevant documents such as BIM-models, IEs, construction drawings and
protocols will be analyzed to further strengthen the theoretical framework. And to
provide with information about what LOD is commonly used on BIM-based projects
and how it affects the LCA. Followed by an LCA-simulation of the different used LOD.

3.3.2 How is LOD-based Information Exchanges useful for the Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA) in BIM-based projects?
By analyzing previous similar research literature, a theoretical framework has been
formed, which provides with knowledge about how others have faced related problems.
This framework also creates a well-detailed starting point which fulfills the supportive
role that is needed for conclusions and a thorough understanding.

Additionally, relevant documents such as BIM-models, IEs, construction drawings and

protocols will be analyzed to further strengthen the theoretical framework. And to
provide with information about how LOD-based Information Exchanges are commonly
conducted and how these exchanges can be useful for the LCA.

3.4 Implementation
Under this chapter the implementation of the research strategy is described.

3.4.1 Literature research

Initially, to commence the study, the availability of previous similar research had to be
confirmed. This was made possible by conducting a short and concise study based on
the keywords that were of interest to the exploration. When the authors were able to
establish that there was a wealth of material to analyze apropos the area to be explored,
a thorough literature research was initiated to gain a profound understanding of the
research field. Which shaped the theoretical framework that this study is based upon.
In parallel with the previously mentioned the structure of the study was founded.

Preponderance share of the literature collection has been conducted through searches
on databases that publish scientifically reviewed articles, such as Primo and Google
Scholar. Recently published articles were prioritized at first hand since these are more
up to date with information. The few articles that are more than seven years old were
used due to their, up to this day, relevance.

14
 Method and Implementation

Example of keywords that were used, both in the narrow study and the thorough
research:
• Building Information Modelling, BIM
• Information Exchanges, IE
• Level of Detail, Level of Development, LOD
• Life Cycle Analysis, LCA

Systematic and critical analyzes were performed on the obtained articles based on the
keywords, by orderly studying the summary, results, and discussion. Additionally, the
articles that were more interesting for the study were completely analyzed (from the
start to the end) to obtain a better understanding and to find more interesting articles.
Further, sentences consisting of a combination between the different keywords were
formed to find even more interesting articles, as the examples below:
• A BIM-based project and its Information Exchanges (IE)
• What challenges hinder the implementation of Level of Development (LOD)
• The relationship between Building Information Modelling (BIM) and the Life
Cycle Analysis (LCA)

3.4.2 Case study

Shortly after the study’s structure was founded, a case study, simultaneously as the
literature orientation, was carried out in the municipality of Jönköping. This presented
case study has consciously been chosen to be confidential, meaning that the collected
data will be deidentified to strengthen the trustworthiness and the credibility of others
ability to execute this same method. Although primarily to increase the privacy and
safety of the participants (Säfsten & Gustavsson, 2019).

The case study provided a BIM model composed by LOD 300, including all necessary
elements to form construction drawings. However, regarding its purpose, the BIM
model included more information (more elements than the one that this paper studies)
than needed. Which led the researchers to narrow down the information and isolate a
part of the whole construction, leaving the model with its building enclosure
components, mores specific, the exterior walls.

Also, since this exploration aim at a comparison between different LOD (LOD 300 and
LOD 200) further changes with experimental nature were conducted as follows:

1. The BIM model provided by the case study was opened in Autodesk Revit and
resaved as an external copy. Thereafter, a unit of the whole construction
consisting of six stories and 2750 sqm outside gross area was isolated. The
elements that were irrelevant for this exploration were removed, leaving the
model with only a climate shell of exterior walls.

15
 Method and Implementation

2. The external copy was named High LOD. Thenceforth, another copy was
created of the external one, named Low LOD.
3. The High LOD BIM model consisted of LOD 300, which mimics a more precise
representation of the exterior walls.
4. The Low LOD BIM model was an alteration of the external copy with a reduced
LOD (LOD 200). To reduce the LOD each wall suffered an edit of its properties
resulting in a generic representation.

The case study is further presented in chapter 4.1.1.

3.4.3 Document analysis

On the second of January (2022) the authors of this research gained documental access
to the IEs that concerned the presented case study. By analyzing different building
components in the IEs, the authors chose to further study one of the most variable ones,
exterior walls.

The exterior walls were chosen since these consisted of various types of walls with
different parameters and properties. The various types of walls were later confirmed by
analyzing the corresponding BIM model provided by the case study in April (2022).
For in detail explanation of the different wall parameters and properties see chapter
4.1.1.

The information that was judged to be irrelevant to the study was negated while the
relevant information was further analyzed to confirm its supportive role, and to
understand the theoretical framework.

3.4.4 LCA-simulations with Autodesk Revit and One Click LCA plugin.
To enable the first simulation the spatial layout of the BIM elements together with its
geometry, material data and properties had to be included and defined in the BIM model
(High LOD). These requirements were well-met since the provided BIM model was
composed by LOD 300. For the second simulation (Low LOD) it was sufficient with a
generic representation of the BIM elements.

The simulations were performed within the Autodesk Revit environment since a plugin
was utilized. By adopting this plugin, the extraction of data can occur automatically or
manually, this study chose to automatically extract the needed data. When the BIM data
was extracted, it was automatically matched to One Click LCA’s material database,
which attributed the elements with similar or the exact LCA profiles (generic data,
EPDs or a merge of both) provided by One Click LCA. This input can then be used in
the simulations which then generates reliable and instant results.

16
 Method and Implementation

Figure 5. Illustrates the workflow of an LCA plugin integrated with a

BIM software (Wastiels & Decuypere, 2019).

To perform the simulations, One Click LCA follows what is stipulated in the ISO 14044
standard as well as in the EN:15978. According to the Swedish Standards Institute
(2011), the EN:15978 is a calculation method for the analysis of the environmental
building performance that uses the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD).

Below follows simplified steps on how these simulations were performed. These steps
follow the steps in 3.4.2 and were applied separately to both BIM models.

5. To perform the LCA simulation within the environment of Autodesk Revit, one
activity, which was initiating the LCA plugin by clicking on its icon in the
Autodesk Revit menu was carried out. By doing so the plugin automatically
extracts the BIM model with its properties, geometry, and location (the data
available in the model) to One Click LCA’s material database.

Figure 6. Shows the isolated model in Autodesk Revit and the menu
bar where the plugin can be founded.

17
 Method and Implementation

6. Thenceforth, the plugin automatically links the BIM elements with its material
database which consist of different LCA profiles (generic data, EPDs or a merge
of both). The elements that were unsuccessfully linked to a LCA profile were
delated due to their low volume (which was under 1% according to One Click
LCA). See figure 7

Figure 7. Displays the completed linking process of the extracted BIM elements (data)
and following steps in One Click LCA.

7. After a few seconds, when the linking process was done, the simulation was
conducted by following the steps seen in figure 5 in One Click LCA. Shortly
after initiating the LCA the environmental impact of the studied BIM model was
obtained. These results were recorded and then displayed as charts and tables
(see chapter 4.1.3).

3.5 Reliability
Säfsten & Gustavsson (2019) points out that the reliability of a research lies on the
credibility of others ability to execute and obtain similar results following the same
method and work process. Additionally, the validity of a study lies on its accurate and
well-founded measurements, that it measures what really is to be measured.

To strengthen the trustworthiness and the credibility of others ability to execute this
same method, confidentiality was presented to each participant, increasing the comfort,
privacy, and safety of the participants, which results in an ethnical approach (Säfsten &
Gustavsson, 2019). The authors will also balance the participants concerns by ensuring
that each participant understand the purpose of this research and the meaning of their
involvement, how the data will be collected and analyzed (Sloan & Quan-Haase, 2017).

Since the document collection will be systematically and critically analyzed to ensure
that they are well substantiated and justified to use as support for this exploration. And
since these documents were formed to provide essential information in an efficient way

18
 Method and Implementation

by professionals in a company their reliability is expected to be high (Säfsten &

Gustavsson, 2019).

Furthermore, to ensure the validity of the generated results from the LCA-simulations,
realistic data was utilized in form of EPDs which were provided by One Click LCA’s
material database. To produce an EPD the manufacturer needs to analyze and follow
different product specific criteria which in turn patterns the guidelines for the products
choice of method, data basis and delimitation. This process called PCR (Product
Category Rules) enables comparison (Boverket, 2019c) since the outcomes are
standardized by PCR and classified by SS-EN 15804 (Swedish Standards Institute,
2019). Therefore, the use of EPDs increases the credibility of this study as they are
systematically and critically analyzed, reviewed, and approved by independent parties
before publishment (Boverket, 2019c).

And to further strengthen the validity a well-planned approach based on the need
required to answer the research questions was developed. Also, what the study aimed
to measure in the LCA-simulations was defined prior the simulations to ensure that the
obtained results provided with a basis to answer specific research questions (Patel &
Davidson, 2011; Säfsten & Gustavsson, 2019).

19
 Results

4 Results

This chapter presents the empirical data that has been collected throughout this
exploration by diverse document analyzes, LCA-simulations and literature research.
Furthermore, the chapter present the analysis of the empirical data and the results.

4.1 Empirical data

This section presents the data collected by diverse document analyzes as well as the
data obtained by the LCA-simulations with the BIM software Autodesk Revit and the
LCA plugin One Click LCA.

The two conducted LCA-simulations aimed to obtain results on two diverse BIM
models where each model contained different LOD.

4.1.1 Case study

The project that has been analyzed and used as case study in this exploration is a new
residential development in Jönköping that is set to be completed in 2024. The
development can be explained with three impacting words: nature, modern and brick.
Further, the ambition of the construction is to create area effective plans to ensure that
affordable rents can be offered which in turn creates a social sustainable neighborhood.

To accomplish this ambition the project is designed to contain approximately 150 flats
of various sizes: from studio flats to larger four or five room apartments. At ground
level retail units and restaurants will create a living streetscape, something that is
enhanced by the different choice of materials used, such as, brick, prefabricated
concrete and slate cladding which creates individual character for the various parts of
the development.

Since the project is of massive character, containing seven units, the researchers chose
to isolate and study one of these units. The unit that was chosen was unit A (see figure
8). Thenceforward, only the exterior walls of unit A were analyzed.

20
 Results

Figure 8. Illustrates the seven units that together form the project which was
object for this case study. Unit A was the only unit that was analysed by
the researchers (Provided by confidential resource).

4.1.2 Properties and Material

To accomplish the objective of the simulations the exterior walls material data found in
the IEs had to be included in the BIM model provided by the case study. By analyzing
both provided documents the following exterior wall properties and materials were
found, see table 1 and 2.

All the exterior walls included in the BIM model were automatically extracted and
linked to the material database provided by One Click LCA.

The two different simulations were conducted, as mentioned before with two diverse
models. The first one contained data of LOD 300 (see table 1 and table 2) which mimics
a more precise presentation of the exterior walls. While the other model is an alteration
of the first one containing a reduced LOD of 200 (see table 3) which results in a mere
generic representation.

21
 Results

Table 1. Presents six out of ten exterior walls including their properties and materials
found in the BIM model. These walls contained a LOD 300.

Thickness Thickness
Type Material Type Material
(mm) (mm)
Brick 108 Wood Stud 22

Exterior Wall 3
Air Gap 44 Batten 28

Isolation 80 Batten 22
Exterior Wall 1

Weatherboard 9 Weatherboard 9

Steel Stud + Isolation 170 Steel Stud + Isolation 120

Steel Stud + Isolation 70 Façade Board 8

Obs 11 Batten 28
Exterior Wall 4

Plasterboard 13 Isolation 50

Wood Stud 22 Weatherboard 9

Batten 28 Steel Stud + Isolation 170

Batten 22 Plasterboard 13
Exterior Wall 2

Isolation 80 Plasterboard 13
Exterior Wall

Weatherboard 9 Puts 10

Steel Stud + Isolation 170 LECA Clinker 200

5

Steel Stud + Isolation 70 Air Gap 20

Exterior Wall

Osb 11 Brick 108

Plasterboard 13 Air Gap 44

6

Isolation 100

22
 Results

Table 2. Presents the four remaining exterior walls including their properties and
materials found in the BIM model. These walls also contained a LOD 300.

Thickness Thickness
Type Material Type Material
(mm) (mm)
Façade Board 8 EW 8 Concrete 150
Exterior Wall 7

Batten 28 EW 9 Concrete 250

EW
Isolation 50 10 Concrete 500

Weatherboard 9

Cellplast 70

Table 3. Presents the ten exterior walls that were found in the Low LOD BIM model,
including their properties and generic material. These walls contained a LOD
200.

Type Material Thickness(mm)

Exterior Wall 1 Generic Load Bearing 505

Exterior Wall 2 Generic Load Bearing 425

Exterior Wall 3 Generic Load Bearing 201

Exterior Wall 4 Generic Load Bearing 291

Exterior Wall 5 Generic Load Bearing 230

Exterior Wall 6 Generic Load Bearing 252

Exterior Wall 7 Generic Load Bearing 165

Exterior Wall 8 Generic Load Bearing 150

Exterior Wall 9 Generic Load Bearing 250

Exterior Wall 10 Generic Load Bearing 500

23
 Results

4.1.3 LCA-simulations
The researchers aimed to perform two simulations with two BIM models composed by
different LOD. The different simulations were named: Low LOD (containing LOD-
data of 200) and High LOD (containing LOD-data of 300). The most markable
difference between the models was the amount of data available. The data available in
each model was later linked to a EPD or a generic material in the material database
provided by One Click LCA. Figure 9 illustrates the difference between the models.

The performed simulations displayed which impact category and what stage within the
LCA it targeted, in this case the climate impact and the A1-A3 stage. The unit for the
obtained values were presented as CO 2e and calculated the carbon dioxide emission
caused by the climate shell (exterior walls) of a construction.

By utilizing a calculation method based to estimate the environmental performance of

an object, the One Click LCA uses a method called EN-15978. This calculation displays
the climate impact of the entire object and its materials on all different stages of the life
cycle (see figure 10 and 11).

Figure 9. Shows two wall examples, the one to the left consist of a higher LOD. While
the right one consists of a Low LOD displaying the remarkable inequality in
LOI (data).

24
 Results

LOD
The model with LOD 200 consist of elements (exterior walls) composed with a generic
material. The plugin material database linked the elements found in the BIM model
with concrete by default since this information was found in the automatic data
extraction (IEs) between the two tools. The simulations presented a carbon dioxide
emission value of totally 248 000 kg CO2e (Low LOD) and 137 850 kg CO2e (High
LOD) for the stage A1-A3.

See figure 10 for the simulation values of the Low LOD model and see figure 11 for
the simulation values of the High LOD model.

The last and second model formed with LOD 300 obtained a more precise
representation of the exterior walls. The linking progress activity matched 99,5% of the
BIM data extraction to the materials (EPD, generic data) within One Click LCA’s
database. The remaining 0,5% of data, that is, formed objects that illustrate shape
(volume) of the different materials used to generate the representation of a wall, were
excluded. This because the poor influence in the results. The “air gap” object illustrates
the air gap between wall elements. Its material is air which caused an unsuccessful
linking progress.

Figure 12 illustrates the simulation values of the High LOD depending on the different
LCA stages while figure 13 presents the simulation values of the Low LOD.

Figure 10. Illustrates the global warming emissions in the Low LOD model caused by
generic material (by default concrete).

25
 Results

Figure 11. Illustrates the global warming emissions in the High LOD model caused by
different materials.

Figure 12. Displays the global warming emissions depending on the different LCA
stages which for the High LOD was 137 850 kg CO2.

Figure 13. Displays the global warming emissions depending on the different LCA
stages which for the Low LOD was 248 000 kg CO2.

26
 Results

4.2 Analysis of the empirical data

The following chapter presents the analysis of the empirical data followed by the results
for each research question. This analysis is supported by the assembled theoretical
framework.

4.2.1 Analysis
Before comparing the two simulations, an analysis of their climate impact was
conducted separately. The analysis displayed that one simulation, being the one with
High LOD, generated the least carbon dioxide emissions. The differences in carbon
dioxide emissions are due to the differences in the BIM models LOD. This is
emphasized by Kamari et al. (2022) who states that the selection of materials and the
use of various EPDs significantly influence the environmental impact of a building
element.

4.2.2 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

The obtained data from the simulations was presented in carbon dioxide equivalents
(CO2e) which was what this study intended to measure.

Many studies (Baumann & Tillman, 2014; Kamari et al., 2022; Röck et al., 2018; Yang
et al., 2018) state that the selection of materials and design solutions are more feasible
in the early stage of the design phase.

By comparing the different obtained LCA values (see table 4 and 5) it is well-founded
that the Low LOD simulation affects the climate with 110 150 kg CO2e more than the
High LOD simulation.

Table 4. Displays the total climate impact of the Low LOD-LCA simulation.
Project name Design Life Cycle Global warming Indicator
name stage kg CO2e name
Examensarbete Low LOD A1-A3 2,48E+05 Life Cycle
assessment,
EN 15978

Table 5. Presents the total climate impact of the High LOD-LCA simulation.

Project name Design Life Cycle Global warming Indicator

name stage kg CO2e name
Examensarbete High LOD A1-A3 1,37E+05 Life Cycle
assessment,
EN 15978

27
 Results

These values also support the argument that the performed LCA-simulations should not
be compared to other more advanced and detailed LCA-simulations conducted after the
design phase (Cavalliere et al., 2019) since those include more complex and specific
information (Kamari et al. 2022). However, the obtained values prove that immediate
and reliable LCA results can be obtained by integrating BIM and targeting the early
design phase (Antón & Diaz, 2014; Kamari et al., 2022)

4.2.3 Level of Development (LOD)

BIM models are supposed to contain semantic and spatial data (Boton et al., 2015).
Further, this data must be specified (Butkovic, 2019) and defined to a minimum content
requirement at different levels of completeness, that is, different LOD (Wastiels &
Decuypere, 2019). This was highlighted by the empirical data since both studied BIM
models contained different LOD. And even though the BIM model with least LOD
(being LOD 200) consisted of generic material (concrete by default) and general
information about geometry, placement, and approximated quantities immediate and
reliable LCA results were obtained as declared by Antón & Diaz (2014) and Kamari et
al. (2022).

4.2.4 Information Exchanges in BIM-based projects

Tang et al. (2020) explains that BIM is a methodology that is effective when IEs need
to occur since these information exchanges are facilitated by using a unified platform
which all the stakeholders have access to (Franco et al., 2015). Also, these IEs must
occur as free from uncertainties as possible (Hjelseth, 2010).

This is supported by the empirical data since the BIM software Autodesk Revit
facilitated the IEs by tackling the otherwise time-consuming character of LCA data
inputs. The automatic extraction of data increased the possibility that the IEs occurred
as free from uncertainties as possible since it by manual extraction would been more
complicated and extensive. IEs considering the architectural design urges for more
specific and competent IEs because the selection of materials has a considerable
influence on the LCA results (Wastiels & Decuypere, 2019).

4.3 Results: Research question 1

How does the Level of Development (LOD) affect the LCA (LCA) in BIM-based
projects?
The LOD has a significant effect on the LCA results. The result showed that the High
LOD model had a climate impact of 137 850 kg CO2e which is approximately 45% less
than the climate impact of the Low LOD model. The last-mentioned model had a
climate impact of 248 000 kg CO2.

28
 Results

Table 6. Presents the LCA results of the High LOD model compared in percentage to
the results of the Low LOD model.

4.4 Results: Research question 2

How is LOD-based Information Exchanges useful for the Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA) in BIM-based projects?
The LOD-based IEs showed to be crucial to enable the immediate and reliable
performance of the LCA by automatic extraction of the information available in the
BIM models. The results emphasize that the model with less specified information, that
is, least LOD, had less adequate information exchanges. Which resulted in a larger
climate impact value since the materials were by default matched to concrete.

29
 Discussion and Conclusions

5 Discussion

In this chapter the choice of method and the results are discussed. Followed by the
conclusions drawn regarding the obtained results.

5.1 Results discussion

In the pursuit of comprehension for the relation between the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA),
Level of Development (LOD) and Information Exchanges (IE) in BIM-based projects
a thorough assemble of previous similar approaches was conducted. Which resulted in
a credible theoretical framework.

This theoretical framework was further strengthened by the document analysis and the
LCA-simulations performed with the BIM software Autodesk Revit and the LCA
plugin One Click LCA. It is arguable that the obtained results of this exploration are
trustworthy since the plugin used is based on various international standards, two of
them being the ones presented in this paper: ISO 14044 and EN:15978. Also, the
provided documents (IEs and BIM model) were created by professionals in a company,
these are supposed to be authentic and essential to facilitate the work of the company
which therefore increases the credibility of the obtained results. Below follows the
result discussion for each research question.

5.1.1 Results discussion: Research question 1

How does the Level of Development (LOD) affect the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
in BIM-based projects?
It is worth mentioning, as stated by Cavalliere et al. (2019) that simple LCA results
cannot or should not be compared or matched with more complex and advanced LCA
simulations performed after the design process. The results in this exploration
emphasize with that since this study targeted the early phase of the design stage, and
since markable, more complicated and advanced steps in the LCA were negated (A4-
A5, B and C).

Some of these steps consist of the material transportation, the total energy consumption,
and the demolition of the studied object. Therefore, these results should not be
recognized as absolute, they should rather be observed as instant feedback indicators
that provide awareness and possibility of environmental reduction by material selection
and alternative design solutions in the early design phase which in turn leads to
sustainable design (Antón & Diaz, 2014; Baumann & Tillman, 2014; Kamari et al.,
2022; Yang et al., 2018).

It is provable that the results are dependent of the LOD in a BIM model. The LOD will
have a significant influence on the LCA since the LOD defines and specifies what type

30
 Discussion and Conclusions

of elements and to which extend of completeness these can be found (Alshorafa &
Ergen, 2019; Butkovic, 2019; Wastiels & Decuypere, 2019).

By comparing two BIM models with different LODs a qualitative contrast can be
reached, stating that a high LOD generates detailed LCA values compared to a low
LOD. Since the model with high LOD contains more information about materials and
their properties it provides with more accurate results since different materials influence
the LCA results different (Antón & Diaz, 2014; Baumann & Tillman, 2014; Kamari et
al., 2022; Yang et al., 2018; Cavalliere et al., 2019; Röck et al., 2018; Wastiels &
Decuypere, 2019).

These results argue that even though a low LOD is being utilized in a LCA-simulation
it generates a relative (to the high LOD) estimated value which can in turn support
architects and construction engineers in the decision making of materials and design
solutions (Antón & Diaz, 2014; Kamari et al., 2022; Röck et al., 2018).

5.1.2 Result discussion: Research question 2

How is LOD-based Information Exchanges useful for the Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA) in BIM-based projects?
Further, these results prove that LOD-based information can be useful when
automatically exchanged through a BIM software (in this case, Autodesk Revit). This
clearly contradicts the complex and time-consuming character of the LCA (Kamari et
al., 2022), creating a strong connection to economic and social sustainability (Antón &
Diaz, 2014; Baumann & Tillman, 2014; Kamari et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2018). Since
this study clarifies the user-friendliness and efficiency of LOD-based IE when adapting
BIM due to its effectiveness and accuracy when exchanging information (Hjelseth,
2010; Tang et al., 2020).

It is notable that this study does not cover embodied environmental impacts, therefore
a risk does exist of the impact increasing when more specific LOD-based information
is added on to the BIM models. However, this is an issue to be addressed in future
research. Further, the economical sustainability perspective of this study can be
questioned since the stakeholders of any project require an incentive to invest in new
constructions.

5.2 Method discussion

For this exploration the preparatory work was crucial, it contained a short and concise
research which qualified the references and the theory that was intended to be used.
Moreover, the preparation provided support to the choice of method, in that way an
appropriate approach was reached. The theory based a basis to each issue studied in this
paper, for example it formed a basis of what an LCA could entail, how it was performed,

31
 Discussion and Conclusions

how others had applied it to their research and what limitations needed to arise. To
collect sufficient and trustworthy theory insight, scientifically reviewed studies were
systematically and critically analysed to increase the reliability of this paper.

Every LCA method is dependent of different goals, scopes, and other factors resulting
in an uncertainty and difficulty to standardized approaches, this complicates the
comparation to other research results since these can have been conducted with other
underlying scopes, impact categories and calculations. Therefore, this paper cannot be
used as a basis for comparison.

With the preparatory work as support and a suitable approach of mixed methods
(quantitative and qualitative), and carefully formed research questions the objective of
this paper was fulfilled. This study argues for that the chosen methods were suitable
and sufficient to collect the necessary information to answer the presented research
questions. Also, it argues for that a high level of reliability and validity was obtained.

However, the research strategy can be considered unclear with features of experimental
nature and could therefore be considered as an experiment rather than a case study. This
is counter-argued since the researchers’ purpose was not to control an environment and
its outcome by analysing a field with a low degree of realism. On the contrary, the
purpose was to reflect reality by comparing the complex and constantly evolving
relation between LOD, LCA and IEs in BIM based projects.

The researchers obtained a BIM model with LOD 300 of massive character therefore,
changes and isolations were inevitable since the research also targeted a lower LOD
(LOD 200). As a result, the researchers considered it necessary for a high degree of
realism to reduce extraneous information in the model, by doing so recreating the
models that most likely from the basis of the complete model, that is, a Low LOD model
used very early in the design phase and a High LOD model used later in the same phase.
This degrades the otherwise high level of reliability and validity, nevertheless, resulting
in a good level.

5.3 Limitations
The limitation to only consider one element (the exterior walls) resulted in only
considering the climate shell of the construction which leads to a general approach.
Since the studied object does not depend on the construction’s interior equipment,
furnishing or technical solutions it could have fulfilled any other function (rather than
residential function).

It was also important to exclude companies different set goals, process- and execution
maps and assume that the IDM was followed to reach a general approach since these
IEs have a significant influence on the information available in a BIM model. If this

32
 Discussion and Conclusions

would not have been limited, it could have resulted in deviate and inadequate
information.

Also, the limitation of LCC was unavoidable since this study mainly focused on the
sustainable aspect. Also, since it otherwise would have become too extensive regarding
the given time frame. Another limitation that contradicted the given time frame was the
choice to exclude various steps of the LCA.

The use of only one LCA plugin (software) argues for less validity, it would have been
beneficial to ensure the validity of this study by performing similar calculations with
various LCA software. This was unreachable given, once again, the time frame but also
because of the objective to target the early design phase. Other LCA software mainly
focus on performing LCA simulations post design phase.

33
 Conclusions and Recommendation

6 Conclusions and Recommendation

This chapter present a list of conclusions drawn from the study. Moreover, it proposes
suggestions that may be of use in case of future research on the subject.

6.1 Conclusions
Based on the results from this research, the conclusions drawn are as follows:
• BIM-based projects demand continuous updates of spatial and semantic data
followed by information exchanges during the whole construction process.
Otherwise, the projects can face uncertainties which can be prejudicial for other
processes connected to the BIM model. Processes as the performance of a LCA
and the quantity of LOD necessary in the model at a certain construction phase.
• A BIM model composed by an LOD 300 or higher is beneficial to produce a
LCA in the interest of achieving a more reliable result of a constructions climate
impact. On the other hand, using BIM models with LOD 200 generates results
that should be appreciated as instant feedback indicators that without
committing materials to a design solution can valuate a concepts approximate
climate impact.
• The LOD in a BIM model is essential for the LCA and the IEs between different
stakeholders.
• By conducting an LCA, the obtained results can be used to support architects
and constructions engineers in the decision making of materials and design
solutions.

6.2 Suggestion for further research

This exploration aimed to study one element and its BIM representation with different
LOD followed by their IEs and the LODs effect on the LCA. Therefore, proposals for
further research with different focus follows here:
• Study other construction elements and/or expand this research by performing an
ample LCA using more than one element.
• Explore embodied environmental impacts in relation with higher LOD.
• Conduct an exploration with the objective to evaluate the Life Cycle Cost
calculations.
• Investigate further stages in an LCA calculation, for example the energy
consumption, transportation, etcetera. With the purpose to obtain thorough
results.
• Perform similar LCA simulations with various software and their different
material databases and compare the results.

34
 References

7 References

Abualdenien, J., & Borrmann, A. (2019). A meta-model approach for formal

specification and consistent management of multi-LOD building models. Advanced
Engineering Informatics, Vol. 40, pg. 135-153.
[Link]

Alshorafa, R., & Ergen, E. (2019). Determining the level of development for BIM
implementation in large-scale projects. A multi-case study. Engineering, Construction
and Architectural Management, Vol. 28, pg. 397-423.[Link]
08-2018-0352

Antón, L.Á., & Díaz, J. (2014). Integration of LCA in a BIM environment. Procedia
Engineering, 85, 26–32. [Link]

Boton, C., Kubicki, S., & Halin, G. (2015). The challenge of level of development in
4D/BIM simulation across AEC project lifecycle. A case study. Procedia Engineering,
123, 59-67. [Link]

Boverket (2019a). Vad visar en LCA? [Link]

byggande-och-forvaltning/livscykelanalys/vad-visar-en-lca/

Boverket (2019b). Introduktion till livscykelanalys (LCA).

[Link]
forvaltning/livscykelanalys/introduktion-till-livscykelanalys-lca/

Boverket (2019c). Mer om miljövarudeklaration för byggprodukter (EPD).

[Link]
forvaltning/livscykelanalys/miljodata-och-lca-verktyg/miljovarudeklaration-for-
byggprodukter-epd/

Boverket (2021). Utsläpp av växthusgaser från bygg- och fastighetssektorn.

[Link]
forvaltning/miljoindikatorer---aktuell-status/vaxthusgaser/

Butkovic, B., Heesom, D., & Oloke, D. (2019). The need for multi-LOD 4D simulations
in construction projects. Journal of Information Technology in Construction (ITcon),
Vol. 24, pg. 256-272, [Link]

Buyle, M., Braet, J., & Audenaert, A. (2013) Life cycle assessment in the construction
sector: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy reviews, 26, 379-388.
[Link]

Cabeza, L. F., Rincón, L., Vilariño, V., Pérez, G., & Castell, A. (2014) Life cycle
assessment (LCA) and life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) of buildings and the
building sector: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 26, 379-388.
[Link]

35
 References

Cavalliere, C., Hollberg, A., Dell’Osso G.R., & Habert, G. (2019). Consistent BIM-
led LCA during the entire building design process. IOP Conference Series: Earth and
Environmental Science, 323. [Link]

Franco, J., Mahdi, F., & Abaza, H. (2015). Using Building Information Modeling
(BIM) for estimating and scheduling, adoption barriers. Universal Journal of
Management, 3(9), 376 - 384. [Link]

Gerring, J. (2017). Qualitative methods. Annual Review of Political Science, 20, 15-
36. [Link]

Harrison, R.L. & Reilly, T.M. (2011). Mixed methods designs in marketing research.
Qualitative Market Research, 14, 7-26. [Link]

Hjelseth, E. (2010). Exchange of Relevant Information in BIM Objects Defined by the

Role- and Life-Cycle Information Model. Architectural Engineering and Design
Management, 6, 279-287. [Link]

International Organization for Standardization (2006, July). ISO 14040:2006,

Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework.
[Link]

International Organization for Standardization (2010, May). ISO 29481-1:2010,

Building information modelling — Information delivery manual — Part 1:
Methodology and format. [Link]

Johnson, R.B., Onwuegbuzie, A.J. & Turner, L.A. (2007) Toward a definition of
mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 33-112.
[Link]

Jönsson, Å., Tillman, A-M., & Svensson, T. (1997). Life Cycle Assessment of
Flooring Materials: Case Study. Building and Environment, 32, 245-255.
[Link]

Kamari, A., Kotula, B.M., & Schultz, C.P.L. (2022). A BIM-based LCA tool for
sustainable building design during the early design stage. Smart and Sustainable Built
Environment. [Link]

Ortiz, O., Castells, F., & Sonnemann, G. (2009). Sustainability in the construction
industry: A review of recent developments based on LCA. Construction and Building
Materials, 23, 28-39. [Link]

Patel, R., & Davidson, B. (2011). Forskningsmetodikens grunder: att planera,

genomföra och rapportera en undersökning. (Upplaga 4). Lund: Studentlitteratur.

Rebitzer, G., Ekvall, T., Frischknecht, R., Hunkeler, D., Norris, G., Rydberg, T.,
Schmidt, W.-P., Suh S., Weidema, B.P., & Pennington, D.W. (2004). Life cycle
assessment: Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and

36
 References

applications. Environment International, 30, 701-720.

[Link]

Redmond, A., Hore, A., Alshawi, M., & West, R. (2012). Exploring how information
exchanges can be enhanced through Cloud BIM. Automation in Construction, 24, 175-
183. [Link]

Röck, M., Hollberg, A., Habert, G., & Passer, A. (2018). LCA and BIM: visualization
of environmental potentials in building construction at early design stages. Building
and Environment, 140, 153-161. [Link]

Sloan, L., & Quan-Haase, A (2017). The SAGE handbook of social media research
methods. Sage.

Swedish Standard Institute (SIS). (2011, 21 november) Hållbarhet hos byggnadsverk

- Värdering av byggnaders miljöprestanda – Beräkningsmetod.
[Link]
byggnader/byggnadsindustrin/ovriga-aspekter/ss-en-158042012a22019/

Swedish Standard Institute (SIS). (2019, 11 maj) Hållbarhet hos byggnadsverk -

Miljödeklarationer - Produktspecifika regler.
[Link]
byggnader/byggnadsindustrin/ovriga-aspekter/ss-en-158042012a22019/

Säfsten, K., & Gustavsson, M. (2019). Forskningsmetodik: för ingenjörer och andra
problemlösare. (Upplaga 1). Lund: Studentlitteratur.

Tang, S., Shelden, D. R., Eastman, C. M., Pishdad-Bogzorgi, P., & Gao, X. (2020).
BIM assisted Building Automation System information exchange using BACnet and
IFC. Automation in Construction, 110, 103049.
[Link]

Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C. (2010). Handbook of mixed methods in social &

behavioral research. SAGE Publications Inc.

Wastiels, L., & Decuypere, R. (2019). Identification and comparison of LCA-BIM

integration strategies. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 323.
[Link]

Yang, X., Hu, M., Wu, J., & Zhao, B. (2018). Building-information-modeling enabled
life cycle assessment, a case study on carbon footprint accounting for residential
building in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 729-743.
[Link]

Zhu, J., Wright, G., Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2018). A Critical Review of the
Integration of Geographic Information System and Building Information Modelling at
the Data Level. International Journal of Geo-Information, 7, 66.
[Link]

37
 References

[Description of the five Level of Development, no title]. (n.d.). Download on 6th May
2022, from [Link]
Development-(LoD)-41_10.jhtml

38