GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genome → is the complete set of genetic material (DNA or RNA) in an organism

Restriction Enzyme → which is the cutting of the DNA strands into fragments. It is basically
used to create DNA fragments with sticky ends or blunt ends that can join with other DNA
fragments.
Plasmid → is a small, circular piece of DNA found in many bacteria (and sometimes in yeast)

WHAT IS GENETIC ENGINEERING?

History of Genetic Engineering

The history of Genetic Engineering can be traced back in 1953 when James Watson discovered
the structure of DNA, after which scientists were able to understand and change the structure.

Difference of Chromosomes, DNA, and Gene

● Chromosomes → A structure that contains many genes
● DNA → The molecule that carries genetic information
● Gene → A segment of DNA that codes for a trait

Analogy:
Computer Analogy
Chromosome → a folder on your computer
DNA → the code files stored inside
Gene → a specific line or section of code that performs a particular function

Genetic Engineering
➢ Genetic engineering is the direct modification of an organism's genome, which is the list
of specific traits (genes) stored in the DNA
➢ Changing the genome enables engineers to give desirable properties to different
organisms.
➢ Organisms created by genetic engineering are called genetically modified organisms
(GMOs).
➢ Involves identifying and isolating a desired gene, creating a recombinant DNA molecule
by inserting it into a vector (like a plasmid), and then introducing this vector into a host
cell to create a genetically modified organism (GMO).

Genetic Engineering
➢ When a gene is expressed within an organism, the DNA is first copied into RNA in a
process called transcription. The RNA is then converted into a protein during another
 process called translation.

➢ Genetic engineering is possible because the genetic code is universal – all living things
have A, T, C, and G in their DNA

Genetic Engineering relies on ENZYME

History of GMO Development
● 1973: created first genetically modified bacteria
● 1974: created GM mice 1982: first commercial development of
● GMOs (insulin-producing bacteria) 1994: began to sell genetically modified
● food 2003: began to sell GMOs as pets (Glofish)

As a result of genetic engineering, bacterial cells can be “factories” that produce human insulin
for diabetics

GMO Bacteria
Bacteria are the most common GMOs because their simple structure permits easy manipulation
of their DNA. One of the most interesting uses for genetically modified bacteria is the production
of hydrocarbons (plastics and fuels) usually only found in fossil fuels.
● Cyanobacteria have been modified to produce plastic (polyethylene) and fuel (butanol) as
byproducts of photosynthesis
● E. Coli bacteria have been modified to produce diesel fuel

Difference of Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering

Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
➢ the actual DNA molecule that is formed by combining genes from two different
organisms.
Genetic Engineering
 ➢ the overall process of changing or modifying an organism’s genetic material to
produce new traits or useful products.

HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates that typically have:

● Hair or fur on their bodies
● Mammary glands, which allow mothers to produce milk for their young
● Live birth (most mammals give birth to live young, except monotremes like the platypus
and echidna, which lay eggs)
● Lungs for breathing
● A four-chambered heart

Cyanobacteria
➢ Cyanobacteria are a group of bacteria that can perform photosynthesis, just like plants.
They are sometimes called blue-green algae, but they are bacteria, not true algae.

The first animals evolved around 700 million years ago.

➢ The first animals evolved around 700 million years ago during the late Precambrian
(Neoproterozoic) era.
➢ These early animals were likely simple, soft-bodied, multicellular organisms.
➢ They were aquatic, living in the oceans, because life had not yet moved onto land.
➢ Examples of early animals:
Sponges – simplest animals, with porous bodies
Cnidarians – jellyfish and their relatives
➢ Trilobites were one of the earliest groups of arthropods (animals with jointed legs and
exoskeletons) that lived in the oceans.

The first land plants appeared

➢ The first land plants appeared around 470–450 million years ago during the Ordovician
Period.
➢ They were non-vascular plants (like modern mosses).
➢ Features:
Lacked true roots, stems, and leaves
Absorbed water directly from their surroundings
Reproduced using spores instead of seeds
➢ Habitat: Moist environments near water bodies

Mesozoic Era (Age of Reptiles)

Largest Dinosaur
The largest dinosaur was likely a titanosaur called Patagotitan mayorum, which lived in what is
now Patagonia, Argentina

Smallest Dinosaur
The smallest known dinosaur is Microraptor zhaoianus

MECHANISMS THAT PRODUCE CHANGE IN POPULATIONS

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Natural Selection
● Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
● Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Natural Selection
➢ The preferential survival and reproduction or preferential elimination of individuals with
certain genotypes (genetic compositions), by means of natural or artificial controlling
factors

● Preferential survival: There are genes that are maintained by the organism because these
are beneficial or helpful that can help the organism survive and reproduce.
● Preferential elimination: loss of traits or characteristics that are useless for the organism.

Natural Selection
➢ Another mechanism for evolution is natural selection, which occurs when populations of
organisms are subjected to the environment. The fittest creatures are more likely to
survive and pass their genes to their offspring, producing a population that is better
adapted to the environment. The genes of less-fit individuals are less likely to be passed
on to the next generation. The important selective force in natural selection is the
environment. Imagine that green beetles are easier for birds to spot (and hence, eat).
Brown beetles are a little more likely to survive to produce offspring. They pass their
genes for brown coloration on to their offspring. So, in the next generation, brown beetles
are more common than in the previous generation.

Genetic Drift
 ➢ This can occur when a small group of individuals leaves a population and establishes a
new one in a geographically isolated region. Fitness of a population is not considered in
genetic drift, nor does genetic drift occur in a very large population.
➢ Imagine that in one generation, two brown beetles happened to have four offspring
survive to reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone stepped on them
and had no offspring. The next generation would have a few more brown beetles than the
previous generation — but just by chance. These chance changes from generation to
generation are known as genetic drift.
➢ In each generation, some individuals may, just by chance, leave behind a few more
descendent (and genes, of course!) than other individuals. The genes of the next
generation will be the genes of the "lucky" individuals, not necessarily the healthier or
"better" individuals. That, in a nutshell, is genetic drift. It happens to ALL populations —
there's no avoiding the vagaries of chance

1. Bottleneck Effect
➢ This happens when a large population suddenly becomes very small due to events like
natural disasters, disease outbreaks, or human activities.
➢ Because only a few individuals survive, the new population has less genetic variation.
➢ Example: A tsunami wipes out most of a coastal animal population. The few survivors
reproduce, and their genes dominate the future population—even if they don’t represent
the original diversity.

2. Founder Effect
➢ This occurs when a small group breaks away from a larger population to start a new
population in a new location.
➢ The genetic makeup of the new group depends heavily on the genes carried by the
founders, which may be very different from the original population.
➢ Example: A small number of birds get blown to a new island. Their traits—just by chance
—become common in the island population, even if they were rare originally.

Mutation
➢ A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism’s DNA or in the DNA or RNA of a
virus
➢ Refers to any change in the nucleotide sequence as a result of a failure of the system to
revert the change
➢ A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism’s DNA or in the DNA or RNA of a
virus
➢ Mutation is a change in DNA, the hereditary material of life. An organism's DNA affects
how it looks, how it behaves, and its physiology — all aspects of its life. So a change in
an organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life.
 ➢ Mutation is a change in a DNA sequence, usually occurring because of errors in
replication or repair. Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation. Changes in the
composition of a genome due to recombination alone are not considered mutations since
recombination alone just changes which genes are united in the same genome but does
not alter the sequence of those genes.

Migration/Gene Flow
➢ Is any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic material they carry, from one
population to another. Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen
being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries. If gene
versions are carried to a population where those gene versions previously did not exist,
gene flow can be a very important source of genetic variation. Gene flow is the
movement of genes between populations. This may happen through the migration of
organisms or the movement of gametes (such as pollen blown to a new location)
➢ The transfer of alleles from one population to another, resulting from the movement of
fertile individuals or their gamete.

Gene
A segment of a DNA that codes for a specific trait (e.g., eye color, blood type)

Allele
A variant form of a gene that produces different expressions of the same trait (e.g., blue eyes,
brown eyes)