UNIT 2: QUANTUM MECHANICS – ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Quantum mechanics explains the behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic
scales, where classical physics fails. It introduces concepts like wave-particle
duality, quantization of energy, and uncertainty.
Sub-Topic 1: Blackbody Radiation & Planck’s Hypothesis
Classical Problem: The Ultraviolet Catastrophe
• Classical physics predicted that the energy radiated by a blackbody increases
indefinitely at short wavelengths (ultraviolet region) → infinite energy, which is
impossible.
• This discrepancy is called the ultraviolet catastrophe.
Blackbody Radiation
• Blackbody: an object that absorbs all incident radiation and emits energy
depending only on temperature.
• Radiation intensity depends on wavelength and temperature.
Planck’s Solution (Quantum Hypothesis)
• Max Planck (1900) proposed that energy is quantized, i.e., emitted or absorbed
in discrete packets called quanta.
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
Where:
• 𝐸= energy of quantum
• ℎ= Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10−34 Js)
• 𝜈= frequency of radiation
• This explains blackbody radiation correctly and avoids ultraviolet catastrophe.
Planck’s Radiation Law
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝐸𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝜆 𝑒 −1
• Matches experimental data for all wavelengths
• Basis for quantum theory
Importance
• Introduced the idea of energy quantization
• Led to photon concept
• Basis for modern quantum mechanics, semiconductors, lasers
Sub-Topic 2: Photoelectric Effect & Einstein’s Equation
Observation
• Light shining on metals ejects electrons (photoelectrons)
• Classical theory predicted intensity dependence, but experiments showed:
o Electrons ejected only if frequency exceeds threshold
o Kinetic energy depends on frequency, not intensity
Einstein’s Explanation
• Light consists of photons with energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
• Electron ejection occurs when photon energy > work function (𝜙)
𝐾max = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙
Where:
• 𝐾max = maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron
• 𝜙= work function (energy needed to remove electron)
Significance
• Demonstrated particle nature of light
• Foundation for wave-particle duality
Sub-Topic 3: Matter Waves (de Broglie Hypothesis)
Concept
• If light exhibits particle behavior, then particles can exhibit wave behavior.
• Proposed by Louis de Broglie (1924)
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Where:
• 𝜆= de Broglie wavelength
• 𝑝= momentum of particle
• 𝑚= mass
• 𝑣= velocity
Verification
• Electron diffraction experiments (Davisson-Germer, 1927) confirmed wave
nature of electrons.
Importance
• Foundation for quantum mechanics
• Explains atomic structure, electron diffraction, and particle-wave duality
Sub-Topic 4: Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Statement
• It is impossible to measure simultaneously the position (x) and momentum
(p) of a particle with absolute precision.
ℎ
Δ𝑥 ⋅ Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
Where:
• Δ𝑥= uncertainty in position
• Δ𝑝= uncertainty in momentum
Implication
• Classical trajectory of particle does not exist at quantum scale
• Introduces fundamental probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics
Applications
• Explains electron confinement in atoms
• Basis for quantum tunneling, scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
Sub-Topic 5: Schrödinger Equation
Concept
• Describes wavefunction (𝜓) of a particle
• Wavefunction gives probability of finding a particle in a region
̂ 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
𝐻
Where:
• ̂ = Hamiltonian operator (total energy)
𝐻
• 𝐸= energy of particle
• 𝜓= wavefunction
Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation (1D)
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
• 𝑉(𝑥)= potential energy
• Applicable for particle in a box, harmonic oscillator, hydrogen atom
Importance
• Core of quantum mechanics
• Determines energy levels and probability distribution
Sub-Topic 6: Particle in a Box (1D Infinite Potential Well)
Concept
• Particle confined between 𝑥 = 0and 𝑥 = 𝐿
• Potential 𝑉 = 0inside, 𝑉 = ∞outside
Energy Levels
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3. ..
8𝑚𝐿2
• Energy is quantized
• Lowest energy 𝑛 = 1called ground state
Wavefunctions
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = √ sin
𝐿 𝐿
• Probability of finding particle is highest at antinodes, zero at walls
Applications
• Explains quantum confinement in semiconductors
• Basis for nanoelectronics, quantum dots
Summary of Unit 2
Unit 2 introduces the quantum nature of matter and energy, covering:
1. Blackbody radiation & Planck hypothesis → quantization of energy
2. Photoelectric effect & Einstein equation → particle nature of light
3. Matter waves (de Broglie) → wave nature of particles
4. Heisenberg uncertainty principle → fundamental limits of measurement
5. Schrödinger equation → wavefunction & energy levels
6. Particle in a box → quantization and probability distribution
These concepts form the foundation for modern electronics, semiconductors,
lasers, and nanotechnology.
QUANTUM MECHANICS – NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Planck’s Hypothesis / Blackbody Radiation
Problem 1: A blackbody emits radiation of frequency 5 × 1014 Hz. Find the energy of one
quantum.
Solution:
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
𝐸 = 6.626 × 10−34 × 5 × 1014 = 3.313 × 10−19 J
Answer: 3.313 × 10−19 J
Problem 2: Find the energy in eV.
1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J
3.313 × 10−19
𝐸= ≈ 2.07 eV
1.6 × 10−19
Answer: 2.07 eV
Photoelectric Effect
Problem 3: A metal has work function 𝜙 = 2eV. Light of wavelength 400 nm is incident.
Find the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
Solution:
𝐾max = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙
1. Find 𝜈:
𝑐 3 × 108
𝜈= = = 7.5 × 1014 Hz
𝜆 400 × 10−9
2. Photon energy:
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 6.626 × 10−34 ⋅ 7.5 × 1014 = 4.97 × 10−19 J ≈ 3.11 eV
3. Maximum kinetic energy:
𝐾max = 3.11 − 2 = 1.11 eV
Answer: 1.11eV
de Broglie Wavelength
Problem 4: Find de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving with velocity 2 × 106 m/s.
(Mass of electron 𝑚 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg)
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
6.626 × 10−34 6.626 × 10−34
𝜆= = ≈ 3.63 × 10−10 m
9.11 × 10−31 ⋅ 2 × 106 1.822 × 10−24
Answer: 0.363nm
Problem 5: Find the velocity of a proton (𝑚 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg) if de Broglie wavelength
is 1 × 10−10 m.
ℎ 6.626 × 10−34
𝑣= = −27 −10
≈ 3.97 × 103 m/s
𝑚𝜆 1.67 × 10 ⋅ 1 × 10
Answer: 3.97 × 103 m/s
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Problem 6: If uncertainty in position of an electron is 10−10m, find minimum
uncertainty in momentum.
ℎ
Δ𝑥 ⋅ Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
6.626 × 10−34
Δ𝑝 ≥ −10
≈ 5.27 × 10−25 kg m/s
4𝜋 ⋅ 10
Answer: 5.27 × 10−25 kg·m/s
Particle in a Box (1D Infinite Well)
Problem 7: Electron in a 1D box of length 𝐿 = 1 nm. Find ground state energy (𝑛 = 1).
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝐿2
(6.626 × 10−34 )2
𝐸1 = ≈ 6.02 × 10−20 J ≈ 0.376 eV
8 ⋅ 9.11 × 10−31 ⋅ (1 × 10−9 )2
Answer: 0.376 eV
Problem 8: Find second energy level (𝑛 = 2)
𝐸2 = 4 ⋅ 𝐸1 = 4 ⋅ 0.376 = 1.504 eV
Answer: 1.504 eV
Summary of Problem Types
• Planck / Blackbody: E = hν, convert to eV
• Photoelectric: Kmax = hν – φ
• de Broglie wavelength: λ = h / mv
• Uncertainty: Δx·Δp ≥ h / 4π
• Particle in box: En = n²h² / 8mL²
QUANTUM MECHANICS – DETAILED QUESTIONS
Blackbody Radiation & Planck’s Hypothesis
Theory Questions:
1. Explain blackbody radiation and why it is important in quantum theory.
2. What is the ultraviolet catastrophe, and how did Planck solve it?
3. Derive the Planck’s radiation formula and explain each term.
4. Explain the concept of energy quantization.
Numerical Questions:
5. Calculate the energy of a quantum emitted by a blackbody with frequency
5 × 1014 Hz.
6. A blackbody emits radiation with wavelength 400 nm. Find the energy of one
photon in eV.
Photoelectric Effect & Einstein’s Equation
Theory Questions:
1. Explain the photoelectric effect and its experimental observations.
2. Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
3. Discuss how photoelectric effect proves the particle nature of light.
4. Define work function and threshold frequency.
Numerical Questions:
5. Light of wavelength 400 nm falls on a metal of work function 2 eV. Calculate
maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons.
6. If threshold frequency of a metal is 5 × 1014 Hz, find the work function in eV.
7. Determine the stopping potential for electrons if Kmax = 1.5 eV.
de Broglie Waves / Matter Waves
Theory Questions:
1. State and explain de Broglie hypothesis.
2. Discuss wave-particle duality.
3. Explain electron diffraction experiments (Davisson-Germer).
Numerical Questions:
4. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at 2 × 106 m/s.
5. Find the velocity of a proton if its de Broglie wavelength is 1 × 10−10 m.
6. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V. Find its de
Broglie wavelength.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Theory Questions:
1. State and explain the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
2. Discuss the physical significance of uncertainty principle in quantum
mechanics.
3. How does uncertainty principle explain the existence of zero-point energy?
Numerical Questions:
4. If the uncertainty in position of an electron is 1 × 10−10 m, calculate minimum
uncertainty in momentum.
5. If Δp = 5 × 10−24 kg·m/s, find the uncertainty in position.
6. Show how the uncertainty principle limits the precision of measuring energy and
time.
Schrödinger Equation
Theory Questions:
1. Write and explain time-dependent and time-independent Schrödinger
equations.
2. Define wavefunction and explain its physical significance.
3. Explain probability density and normalization of wavefunction.
Numerical / Concept Questions:
4. For a particle in a potential, show that the total energy operator (Hamiltonian)
gives the energy eigenvalues.
5. Solve the Schrödinger equation for a 1D infinite potential well.
6. Explain the boundary conditions for particle in a box.
Particle in a Box (1D)
Theory Questions:
1. Explain particle in a 1D box with infinite potential walls.
2. Discuss quantization of energy and wavefunctions.
3. Sketch ψ1, ψ2, ψ3 and probability distribution for n = 1, 2, 3.
Numerical Questions:
4. Find the ground state energy of an electron in a box of length 1 nm.
5. Find the second energy level for the same box.
6. Find the wavelength of radiation emitted when electron transitions from n = 3 to
n = 2.
7. Particle in a box of length L. Show that energy difference between levels
increases with n.
Mixed / Conceptual Questions
1. Explain the dual nature of matter and light.
2. Compare classical and quantum theories for blackbody radiation.
3. Explain quantum confinement using particle in a box model.
4. Explain how uncertainty principle prevents electron collapse into nucleus.
5. Discuss applications of quantum mechanics in semiconductors, lasers, and
nanotechnology.
6. Explain difference between energy quantization in particle in a box and in
hydrogen atom.
