Article

Workplace Spirituality South Asian Journal of Human

Resources Management
and Organizational 4(2) 191–211
2017 SAGE Publications India
Performance in Indian Private Limited
SAGE Publications
Context: Mediating [Link]/[Link]
DOI: 10.1177/2322093717736134
Effect of Organizational [Link]

Commitment, Work
Motivation and Employee
Engagement

Naval Garg1

Abstract
Prior research on workplace spirituality has mostly looked at the antecedents and
consequences of the construct. The purpose of the present research is to inves-
tigate the mediating effect of employee commitment, employee engagement and
work motivation in the relationship between workplace spirituality and organi-
zational performance in Indian context. Using standardized self-report measures
and structural equation modelling (SEM), present research finds that two facets of
organizational commitment (namely, affective and normative), employee engage-
ment and work motivation partially mediate the relationship. Implications of these
findings for academic theory as well as HR managers are discussed.

Keywords
Workplace spirituality, organizational commitment, motivation, engagement,
organizational performance

Introduction
There is an emergent interest in workplace spirituality among academicians and
HR professionals (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). Spirituality at workplace is
increasingly being lauded as a probable solution to many HR challenges. Over the

1
Administrative Officer, The Oriental Insurance Company Limited, Jagadhri, Haryana, India.

Corresponding author:
Naval Garg, Administrative Officer, The Oriental Insurance Company Limited, Jagadhri, Haryana, India.
E-mail: naval.garg785@[Link]
192 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

past two decades, conceptual and empirical research on the concept and utility of
workplace spirituality have increased and expanded significantly (Houghton,
Neck, & Krishnakumar, 2016).
Among the many outcomes, workplace spirituality is shown to benefit at three
levels: societal, organizational and individual (Moore & Casper, 2006). At societal
level, it strengthens and consolidates trust and faith in the power of goodness
(Miller, 2001). Workplace spirituality calls for augmenting profit maximization
with fulfilment of moral obligation, social service, philanthropic activities and
corporate social responsibility.
At individual level, spirituality at workplace results into greater physical,
psychological, mental and spiritual health of the employees (Krahnke, Giacalone, &
Jurkiewicz, 2003). Greater personal growth, higher self-confidence and enhanced
sense of self-worth are common outcomes of workplace spirituality (Krahnke
et al., 2003). Fry, Hannah, Noel and Walumbwa (2011) reported positive relation-
ship between spiritual leadership and productivity in military units. Additionally,
James, Miles & Mullins (2011) attributed greater performance to employees
having inherent spiritual attributes. Other researchers who advocated greater
performance with workplace spirituality include Javanmard (2012), Pandey,
Gupta and Arora (2009), Maleki et al. (2012), Garg (2017) and Malik and Naeem
(2011). It allows realization of their full potential and complete self at work.
At organizational level, firm that practices spirituality experiences greater
profitability and productivity in the long run. Lloyd (1990) reported that the
firms soaked in spirituality at workplace perform 86 per cent higher than firms
with little or no workplace spirituality. It also serves the role of catalyst in
change management, and therefore easy transformation helps organizations in
mastering market opportunities in a better way. Spiritual organizations achieved
greater efficiencies and rate of return than their competitors (Jurkiewicz &
Giacalone, 2004).
Workplace spirituality shapes employees and organizations’ performance at
multiple levels (Moore & Casper, 2006). Many firms are ready to walk extra mile
to institutionalize spirituality at workplace so that they can engage hearts and
minds of employees (Pfeffer, 2010). In the opinion of Giacalone and Jurkiewicz
(2003), the systematic study of workplace spirituality focuses on a fundamental
question: “Is spirituality significantly related to various aspects of organizational
behaviour and performance, and if so, how?” The present study is an endeavour
to answer the “how” part of the question raised. Specifically, the present article
looks at the mediating effect of organizational commitment, work motivation and
employee engagement in relationship between workplace spirituality and organi-
zational performance.
This article is broadly divided into four parts. In the first part of the article, various
definitions of workplace spirituality along with divergent views of researchers are
discussed. In the second part, six constructs of Indian spiritualism, already delineated
in the literature, are described. Here, the author proposes one additional construct of
workplace spirituality: kritagayata (gratefulness). Thirdly, with the help of structured
questionnaire and random sampling, a model using all relevant variables of the
study is proposed and tested with the help of structural equation modelling (SEM).
Garg 193

The mediating effect of intervening variables is explored using revised model.

And lastly, practical implications of study and propositions for further research
are discussed.

Literature Review
Defining Workplace Spirituality
There is little consensus among research scholars for an acceptable definition of
workplace spirituality (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2004). Workplace spirituality has
been approached through diverse conceptions such as value and belief system, as
a developmental line, as a way to get in touch with inner self, as a means of self-
realization and as inner experience (Garg, 2017). Zohar and Marshall (2000)
argue that workplace spirituality is best evaluated in terms of hyper or super intel-
ligence, which is characterized by quickness of understanding, sound thought,
good judgements and effective response to stimuli. One of the most revered Indian
epics, Shrimad Bhagvad Gita (Chapter 2, verse 50), also shares similar views by
stating Yogah Karmasu Kaushalam (excellence in action is yoga). Workplace
spirituality helps to establish connection with the true self (Dehler & Welsh, 2003;
George, Sorenson, & Bums, 2004). According to Emmons (2000), spirituality
paves the path for experiencing higher state of self-realization. A person moves
beyond physical and material world in his pursuit of self-actualization. Spirituality
is a special capability that connects one with its complete self, with others and
with complete universe (Mitroff & Denton, 1999a).
Covey (2009) elaborated spirituality as:

The word spiritual has its roots in spirit, for which dictionaries provide many defini-
tions, most of which are nonreligious in nature, such as “disposition of mind or out-
look” or “a mental disposition characterized by firmness or assertiveness.” Thesauruses
likewise put forward many synonyms for spirit including disposition, courage, deter-
mination, vigor, will, moral fiber, heart, enthusiasm, inner self, fortitude, and strength.
Combine the dictionary definitions with these synonyms, and that is what I am referring
to here when speaking of young people’s spirits, or spiritual needs.

Giacolone and Jurkiewics (2003) provide the following definition:

Aspects of the workplace, either in the individual, the group, or the organization, that
promotes individual feelings of satisfaction through transcendence. To elaborate, that the
process of work facilitates employees sense of being connected to a non-physical force
beyond them that provide feelings of completeness and joy.

Krishnakumar and Neck (2002) defined spirituality as perennial search for the
purpose and meaning of the life. Other authors provide different connotation to
workplace spirituality: inner experiences (Dillard, 1982), attitude of openness
and care (Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003), morality (Kohlberg & Ryncarz,
1990), workplace integration and connectedness (Ingersoll, 2003), respect,
humility and courage (Heaton, Schmidt-Wilk, & Travis, 2004), common purpose
194 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

(Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2004), inclusiveness and interconnectedness (Marques,

Dhiman, & King, 2007), inner consciousness (Guillory, 2000), feelings that energizes
action (Dehler & Welsh, 1994), faith (Fowler, 1981), sacred force that implies life
(Nash & Mclennan, 2001), compassion (McCormick, 1994) and so on. Karakas
(2010) reported 70 different definitions of workplace spirituality in his meta-analysis
study. There is no consensus over definition of workplace spirituality (Kinjerski &
Skrypnek, 2004), but there is an emergent agreement on the fact that the spirituality
is a multidimensional paradigm that aspires one to search something meaningful
and purposeful in life (Dehler & Welsh, 2003; George et al., 2004; Tepper, 2003).
Researchers are searching avenues to practice spiritual values at workplace
(George et al., 2004; Milliman et al., 2003). As constructs of workplace spiri-
tuality are culture specific, present research gauged workplace spirituality
through Indian ethos. Present work references six core components of work-
place spirituality in Indian settings: swadharma (means duty of an individual),
lokasangraha (binding people for the welfare of the society), authenticity,
sense of community, karma capital and kritagayata. These measures of work-
place spirituality are chosen after synthesis of modern empirical researches
and ancient Indian epics such as Ramayana, Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, Upanishads,
etc. These constructs provide initial references to measure workplace spiritua-
lity, and future researches could incorporate other important constructs to help
measure workplace spirituality.

Constructs of Indian Spiritualism

Workplace spirituality has been practiced in India from ages. Indian kings used
to have a spiritual teacher (Rajpurohit) in their courts for practicing morality
and spirituality with work. Pandey, Gupta and Kumar (2016) explored Indian
spiritual climate using four constructs: swadharma, lokasangraha, authenticity
and sense of community. Garg (2017) introduced karma capital, another vital and
indispensable paradigm to the existing literature. Based on ancient spiritual
literature, the present article proposes additional fundamental constructs of spiri-
tuality: kritagayata.

Swadharma
The word swadharma (means duty of an individual) appears several times in
Shrimad Bhagavad Gita (Agarwal, 1997; Bhawuk, 2011; Sebastian, 2003). It is
acting in accordance with one’s skills and talents, and also according to one’s
own nature (swabhava). The word “swadharma” is the combination of two terms:
swa and dharma (“swa” means self and “dharma” means to uphold). In modern
literature, two constructs capture the essence of swadharma (Pandey et al.,
2009): meaningful work and meditative work. Meditative work means state of
being totally engrossed in work, losing sense of self and thus becoming one
with the work (McCormick, 1994). Meditative work includes behavioural
aspect of self that satisfies higher level needs and aspirations of the employees
(Pandey et al., 2016). Meaningfulness refers to work done for life and not only
Garg 195

for bread and butter. These constructs establish the importance of work profile
of an employee.

Lokasangraha
The word “lokasangraha” comprises of two terms: loka (world) and sangraha
(coming together). It means binding people for the welfare of the society (Sebastian,
2003; Sharma, 1999). The great Indian epic Shrimad Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 3,
verse 14) has referred to lokasangraha as a model of universal consciousness that
connects all human beings. It binds people together, encourages them to work for
the welfare of the society and leads them to the self-realization. It includes welfare
of all (Chakraborty, 2006), well-being of society as whole and humanity (Sharma,
1999) and concern for social and natural environment (Pandey et al., 2009). Every
individual has his/her own duty to be performed and contribute to the maintenance
of the world order.

Authenticity
Authenticity is operationally referred to synchronization of employees’ actions
and behaviours with their core and internalized cultural values and beliefs (Pandey
et al., 2016). Authenticity is being true and honest to self, and to others too (Garg,
2017). An employee may operationalize authenticity at workplace by being
genuine, open and helpful to colleagues. It ensures an official environment that
lacks office politics, favouritism, exploitation, harassment and discrimination.

Sense of Community
It has been defined as interconnectedness and interdependence among employees
(Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004). Employee values those workplaces where they
feel and experience a sense of belongingness and affiliation (Pfeffer & Veiga,
1999). According to Naylor, Willimon, & Osterberg (1996), sense of community
could be developed through shared vision, common values, empowerment,
responsibility sharing, growth and development, feedback and friendship.

Karma Capital
Karma theory is the essence of Indian spiritual values. It advocates 100 per cent
efforts without expectation of fruits of the action (Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, 2.47).
Karma (action) should be free from any impression of pleasure–sorrow, profit–
loss and win–loss (Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, 2.38). Good actions are reciprocated
through blissful and desired results (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 4.4.5). Fearless
action, dedicated workforce, and ethical and moral behaviour at workplace are
natural resultants of internalizing teachings of karma theory.

Kritagayata
Kritagayata is being grateful for whatever one possesses. Indian spiritualism
represents pinnacle of gratefulness. Hindu tradition honours every living and
196 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

non-living aspect of life. On the one hand, fire, water, sun, Earth, rain, river,
mountain, etc., are worshipped for their contribution to humanity, and on other
hand, animals such as lion, cow, snake, etc., are treated akin to God. Gratitude
towards God, nature and fellow humans forms basis of Indian spiritualism. One
must be thankful for whatever one possesses (Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, 18.2).
Indian renowned spiritual guru Sri Sri Ravi Shankar stated that being grateful is
a heavenly virtue, and it fills a person with deep contentment and satisfaction.
No scientific exploration in the domain of Indian spiritualism is complete with-
out including kritagayata. Thus, the present article considers six constructs of
workplace spirituality.

Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance

Researchers argued that workplace spirituality could be utilized to improve organi-
zational performance (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Fry, Vitucci & Cedillo, 2005;
Garcia-Zamor & Jean-Claude, 2003; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). The last
decade of the twentieth century witnessed several empirical research projects that
concluded positive association between workplace spirituality and organizational
performance (Biberman & Whitty, 1997; Bierly, Kessler, & Christensen, 2000;
Burack, 1999; Delbecq, 1999; Mitroff & Denton, 1999a; Korac-Kakabadse,
Kouzmin, & Kakabadse, 2002; Kriger & Hanson, 1999; Mitroff & Denton, 1999b;
Neck & Milliman, 1994; Thompson, 2000). Additional explorations highlighted
that the organizations with voluntary spirituality programmes reported higher
profits and success (Dehler & Welsh, 1994; Konz & Ryan, 1999; Mitroff & Denton,
1999a; Turner, 1999). Other researches demonstrated linkage of spirituality at
work with productivity and profitability (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Fry, Vitucci &
Cedillo, 2005; Garcia-Zamor & Jean-Claude, 2003; Giacalone, Jurkiewicz, & Fry,
2005; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003).
Although the domain of workplace spirituality is increasingly recognized as a
significant area of inquiry, studies exploring intersection of workplace spirituality
and organizational performance has not been systematically consolidated
(Karakas, 2010). There exists a lot of confusion regarding the role of workplace
spirituality in ensuring organizational performance (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz,
2003). Researchers such as Giacalone, Jurkiewicz and Fry (2005) encouraged
scholars to empirically and rigorously highlight the positive effects of workplace
spirituality on organizational performance to prevent the marginalization of spiri-
tuality at work research. Basic aim of such an encouragement was to make the
area of workplace spirituality research more legitimate and mainstream to organi-
zational studies.

Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment is a psychological state of being highly associated
with an organization. It has positive impact on various employee-level outcomes
Garg 197

such as attitudes and behaviours at workplace, attrition, attendance and adherence

to timeliness, organizational citizenship behaviours (Allen & Meyer, 2000;
Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Allen and Meyer’s (1991) model of organi-
zational commitment has three components: affective commitment (emotional
attachment of employees with the organization), continuance commitment
(cost of leaving firm is much higher than benefits associated with the firm) and
normative commitment (internalization of organizational norms and values
through socialization). Relationship of workplace spirituality and organiza-
tional commitment has been investigated by numerous scholars. Greater levels
of workplace spirituality results into normatively and affectively committed
workforce (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). Workplace spirituality ensures that
employee brings entire self (physical, mental, emotional and spiritual) to the
workplace, and thus organizational commitment develops (Gavin & Mason,
2004). Spiritual organizational values and meaningful work profile improves
self-esteem, happiness, health and personal growth of the employees. As a
result, employee assumes work as a mission rather than as a “job.” It makes
employees affectively and normatively attached to their organizations, and
also more dedicated to improve organizational performance (Gavin & Mason,
2004). Various authors, namely Kim and Mauborgne (1998), Karasek and
Theorell (1990), Brown and Leigh (1996), Gouldner (1960), Settoon, Bennett
and Liden (1996), Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch and Rhoades (2001),
Bromet, Dew and Parkinson (1990), Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2004), Adams
et al. (2003), Burroughs and Eby (1998), and many more, support positive
association between workplace spirituality and organizational commitment.
Additionally, other researchers (Angle & Perry, 1981; Aselage & Eisenberger,
2003; Bakiev, 2011; Eisenberger et al., 2001; Şahin, 2010) concluded positive
relationship between organizational commitment and performance paradigms.
The present study hypothesized that the organizational commitment provides
one of the paths through which workplace spirituality affects organizational
performance.

Workplace Spirituality and Employee Engagement

Employee engagement level is decreasing (Bates, 2004; Richman, 2006), and
such situation is referred as “engagement gap” (Johnson, 2004; Kowalski, 2003).
HR professional relies on workplace spirituality for solving serious problem of
engagement gap (Pfeffer, 2010). Employee engagement is associated with human
spirit at work (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004), and workplace spirituality helps
in experiencing complete self at work (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002). Highly
engaged employees require work profile that utilizes all aspects (cognitive, physical,
emotional, social and psychological) of an individual personality (Garg, 2014).
And spiritual workplace induces complete involvement of the employees at the
workplace (Milliman et al., 2003). Indian spiritual values are strong advocatory
of complete devotion and commitment at workplace. No organization can rise
without devotion and engagement of its employees (Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, 2008).
198 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

Spirituality develops mutual faith and trust among employees and employers, and
it produces appropriate environment wherein employee’s readiness to take higher
responsibility increases. Kena Upanishad says Bhutesu bhute suvicitiyadhirah
which means “one must look beyond individual differences to experience
undivided and one supreme consciousness.” The teaching is important for modern
organization wherein employees are expected to ignore their demographical and
cultural differences to work collectively towards organizational goal. Shrimad
Bhagvad Gita (Chapter 3, verse 9) suggested that everyone should work collec-
tively without self-interest towards greater goal of the society. These theoretical
inferences establish linkage between spiritual workplace and employee engage-
ment. Other scholars (Albrecht, 2012; Andrew & Sofian, 2012; Markos & Sridevi,
2010; Mehta & Mehta, 2013; Shamila, 2013; Siddiqui, 2015; Truss, Shantz,
Soane, Alfes, & Delbrige, 2013) observe positive relationship between employee
engagement and various performance parameters. It is hypothesized that the job
engagement intervenes the relationship of workplace spirituality and organiza-
tional performance.

Workplace Spirituality and Work Motivation

According to Ran (2009), motivation may be referred to “as the process that
accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.” It refers to “the reasons underlying behavior” (Guay,
2010). Elliot and Zahn (2008) described work motivation as strength and course
of behaviour. In certain instances, motivation explains and predicts the behaviour
of a particular employee’s work performance (Irons & Buskist, 2008). Researchers
are looking at workplace spirituality to act as another source of work motivation.
Clemmons and Fields (2011) reported significant influence of workplace spiritu-
ality on work motivation of soldiers. Indian epics are full of inference that combines
workplace spirituality with work motivation. Shrimad Bhagvad Gita is an epitome
of the epics that highlights important of spirituality for work motivation. God
Krishna motivated Arjuna (the warrior) to fulfil his official duty (to fight in a
war) through spiritual discourses. Modern researchers (say Albrecht, 2012) have
also concluded association between spirituality and work motivation. Taking
clues from the available literature, therefore, the hypothesis is that work motiva-
tion mediates the relationship between spirituality at work and organizational
performance
In sum, the aforementioned referred studies clearly highlight the potential
importance of workplace spirituality for modern-day organizations. But empirical
studies on how spirituality at work impacts organizational performance has
received limited attention (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). This study is an
attempt to fill this research gap by exploring the relationship between workplace
spirituality and organizational performance in a sample of Indian employees.
The specific research proposition is: three facets of organizational commitment
(affective, continuance and normative), employee engagement and work motiva-
tion mediate the relationship between workplace spirituality and organizational
performance (please see Figure 1 for the proposed model).
Garg 199

Normative Commitment

Affective Commitment

Workplace Organizational
Continuance Commitment
Spirituality Performance

Employee Engagement

Work Motivation

Figure 1. Proposed Model of Workplace Spirituality

Source: Author’s own.

Research Framework
Research Setting
The research setting for the present study is manufacturing and service companies
located in National Capital Region (NCR), India. The study is based upon an
exploratory-cum-descriptive research design (Shamra, Karim, & Jain, 2015).

Participants and Procedure

A sample of 418 respondents was sampled with the help of random sampling.
Probable respondents were surveyed with the help of online survey. The indus-
tries surveyed include banking, insurance, textile, BPO, KPO, petroleum, consul-
tancy, cold drink, rice, shoe and broker situated in NCR. Of the 418 respondents,
240 were men and 178 were women. Mean age of the respondents was 41.8 years.
The majority of participants (62%) were graduates and the rest were either
diploma holders (27%) or postgraduates (11%).

Questionnaire
Workplace Spirituality
Workplace spirituality was accessed using scale developed by Pandey et al. (2009).
This scale is based on four constructs of spirituality: swadharma (e.g., my job helps
me to understand my life’s purpose, working here makes my life meaningful), authen-
ticity (e.g., peoples’ actions here are aligned with their words, and people here own up
to mistakes with others in the group), lokasangraha (e.g., people here perform their
duties as if they contribute to the (community/society at large/humankind in general),
sense of community (when stuck with a problem, people here feel free to ask for
(advice from colleagues/advice from a superior/help from their colleagues/help from
200 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

a superior). Karma capital (four statements) was added based on the work of Garg
(2017). The present article included additional dimension of Indian spirituality, that is,
kritagayata (three statements) (see Appendix for the complete scale). All questions
were answered on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree). Mean value of independent variable was 3.21 and reliability
(Cronbach’s alpha) is good (overall = 0.82, swadharma = 0.84, authenticity = 0.87,
lokasangraha = 0.79, sense of community = 0.91, karma capital = 0.76 and
kritagayata = 0.88).

Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment was accessed with the help of questionnaire used
by Rego and Souto (2004). The scale measured affective, normative and continuance
facet of organizational commitment using 14 statements. Reliability of scale
was acceptable (affective = 0.80, continuance = 0.071 and normative = 0.76).
Statements such as “I feel like part of the family at my organization” (affective
commitment); “If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere, I would not feel
it was right to leave my organization” (normative commitment); “I believe that
I have just a few options to consider leaving this organization” (continuance
commitment) are used.

Employee Engagement
Employee engagement was explored with the help of scale used by Garg and
Sharma (2015) that comprised of 72 statements. The main constructs of employee
engagement were work environment (14 statements), relationship with immediate
seniors and co-workers (14 statements), policies and work procedures of the company
(6 statements), work-life balance (6 statements), compensation programme
(4 statements), leadership and direction (11 statements), job security and career
development (7 statements) and workplace well-being (10 statements). Mean
value of the variable was 3.85 and reliability of the scale was 0.71. Statements
included “I am able to maintain a balance between official and household respon-
sibilities simultaneously,” “I enjoy company of my coworkers.” 5-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used.

Work Motivation
Work motivation was measured using 10-statements scale developed by
Shouksmith (1989). Ten items were assessed on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly
disagree, 7 = strongly agree), and included items such as “my job is secure?”
and “job is exciting and challenging.” Reliability (alpha) for this scale in this
sample was 0.94.

Organizational Performance
Organizational performance was accessed with the help of scale developed by Singh
(2004). Items included “quality of products or services,” “development of new
Garg 201

products or services.” Perceived organizational performance was accessed on a

5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Results
Table 1 gives the means, SDs and the correlations of all variables in the study.
SEM was used to test the fit of the proposed model.

Measurement Model
Workplace spirituality (latent variable) was modelled with swadharma, lokasan-
graha, sense of community, authenticity, karma capital and kritagayata as mani-
fest variables. The latent organizational performance and work motivation were
modelled with their respective subscales as a manifest variable. Employee
engagement was modelled with work environment, leadership and direction,
relationship with immediate seniors and co-workers, compensation programme,
job security and career development, policies and work procedures of the company,
work-life balance and workplace well-being. Error terms were suitably added
with every variable of the study. Model fit was not good, chi-square value
(df = 322, N = 432) = 684 p < 0.001, χ2/df = 2.12, RMR = 0.17, CFI = 0.84,
RMSEA = 0.13. Model required improvement for good model fit. Loading of
two manifest variables (relationship with immediate seniors and co-workers, and
leadership and direction) was not significant and were removed from the model.
Resultant model showed better model indices, but still some improvement were
required. Next round of improvement in the model was done with the help of
modification indices. Resultant model showed good model fit, chi-square value
(df = 298, N = 432) = 402 p < 0.001, χ2/df = 1.34, RMR = 0.08, CFI = 0.97,
RMSEA = 0.07 (see Figure 2).

Table 1. Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation among Variables

Mean SD WS NC CC AC EE WM OP
WS 3.21 0.85 (0.82)
NC 3.44 0.71 0.58* (0.76)
CC 3.10 0.53 0.77** 0.61* (0.71)
AC 2.96 0.93 0.65* 0.60* 0.75** (0.80)
EE 3.85 0.68 0.51* 0.43 0.79** 0.83*** (0.71)
WM 3.96 0.87 0.68** 0.64** 0.56* 0.48 0.33 (0.94)
OP 2.87 0.62 0.72** 0.68** 0.63** 0.50* 0.39 0.46 (0.79)
Source: Primary Data.
Notes: WS—workplace spirituality, NC—normative commitment, CC—continuance commitment,
AC—affective commitment, EE—employee engagement, WM—work motivation, OP—
organizational performance.
Cronbach’s alpha is in parentheses, * p < 0.001, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.
202 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

Normative Commitment

0.67 0.69
0.36 Affective Commitment 0.66

Workplace 0.42 0.53 Organizational

Continuance Commitment
Spirituality Performance
0.38 0.61

Employee Engagement
0.49 0.60

Work Motivation

0.40
Figure 2. Structural Model of Direct and Indirect Effect of Commitment, Engagement
and Work Motivation in Relationship Between Workplace Spirituality and Organizational
Performance
Source: Author’s own.

Mediation Analysis (See Table 2)

To investigate mediation effect of five variables (affective commitment, norma-
tive commitment, continuance commitment, work motivation and employee
engagement), regression values of direct, indirect and total effects were calcu-
lated using improved model. Improvement in model was achieved after remov-
ing two variables (relationship with immediate seniors and co-workers, and
leadership and direction) from the study. Baron and Kenny’s (1986) technique
has been used to examine mediation. According to their technique, mediation
exists if (a) independent variable (WS) relates to dependent variable (OP),
(b) mediating variable relates to dependent variable, (c) independent variable
relates to mediator, (d) relation between independent variable and dependent
variable reduces (partial mediation) or remains no longer significant (full
mediation) when mediator is controlled. Total effect refers to sum of direct effect
and indirect effect (Baron & Kenny, 1986).
Workplace spirituality exerted significant direct effect on affective commit-
ment (direct β = 0.36, p < 0.01), continuance commitment (direct β = 0.42,
p < 0.01), employee engagement (direct β = 0.38, p < 0.01) and on work motivation
(direct β = 0.49, p < 0.05). However, workplace spirituality reported no signi-
ficant effect on normative commitment (direct β = 0.67, p < 0.15). Thus, hypoth-
esized mediation effect of normative commitment in relationship of workplace
spirituality and organizational commitment was ruled out (refer to the second
condition of Baron and Kenny’s [1986] method). Further all hypothesized
mediating variables exerted significant direct effect on dependent variable
(organizational commitment). Direct relationships of affective commitment and
organizational performance (direct β = 0.66, p < 0.05), of continuance commitment
and organizational performance (direct β = 0.53, p < 0.05), of employee engagement
Garg 203

Table 2. Direct, Indirect and Total Effect of Workplace Spirituality on Organizational

Performance

Direct Effect β B SE P
WS OP 0.40 0.43 0.67 <0.05
WS AC 0.36 0.66 0.91 <0.01
WS CC 0.42 0.51 0.93 <0.01
WS NC 0.67 0.74 0.69 >0.05
WS EE 0.38 0.65 0.87 <0.01
WS WM 0.49 0.53 1.43 <0.05
AC OP 0.66 0.68 0.80 <0.05
CC OP 0.53 0.72 0.74 <0.05
NC OP 0.69 0.84 0.77 <0.001
EE OP 0.61 1.23 1.74 <0.05
WM OP 0.60 0.80 0.79 <0.01
Indirect Effect
WS AC OP 0.52 0.90 0.78 <0.05
WS CC OP 0.44 1.32 0.64 <0.01
WS NC OP 0.48 0.40 1.42 <0.05
WS EE OP 0.40 0.93 0.98 <0.01
WS WM OP 0.49 0.81 0.83 <0.05
Total Effect
WS on OP (AC) 0.92 1.33 0.74 <0.05
WS on OP (CC) 0.86 1.75 1.46 <0.05
WS on OP (NC) 0.88 0.83 0.95 <0.05
WS on OP (EE) 0.78 1.36 0.55 <0.05
WS on OP (WM) 0.89 1.24 0.74 <0.001
Source: Primary Data.
Note: β—standardized coefficient, B—Unstandardized coefficient.

and organizational performance (direct β = 0.61, p < 0.05) and of work motiva-
tion and organizational performance (direct β = 0.60, p < 0.01) were concluded
significant. This satisfies the third condition of Baron and Kenny’s (1986)
method.
Further, workplace spirituality did exert statistical significant indirect effect on
organizational performance (indirect β = 0.52, p < 0.05) after being mediated by
affective commitment (first condition satisfied). Now direct effect of workplace
spirituality on organizational performance was found significant even when
mediator (affective commitment) was controlled (direct β = 0.40, p < 0.05). Since
value of regression coefficient reduces here, thus partial mediation is confirmed
(refer to the fourth condition of Baron and Kenny’s [1986] method). Indirect
effect explained 56.5 per cent of total effect of independent variable on dependent
204 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

variable being mediated by affective commitment (total β = 0.92, p < 0.05).

Workplace spirituality exerted significant direct (direct β = 0.42, p < 0.01) and
indirect (indirect β = 0.44, p < 0.05) effect on continuance commitment. The calcu-
lated indirect effect resulted in 51.1 per cent of the total effect of spirituality on
performance being mediated by continuance commitment (total β = 0.86, p < 0.05).
Additionally, predictor variable exerted significant indirect effects on criteria
variable (indirect β = 0.40 p < 0.01), resulting in 51.2 per cent of the total effect
of workplace spirituality on organizational performance being mediated by
employee engagement (total β = 0.78, p < 0.05). Identically, work motivation
also reported partial mediation in relationship of workplace spirituality (indirect
β = 0.49, p < 0.05 and total β = 0.89, p < 0.001). Indirect effect explained 55 per cent
of the total effect of workplace spirituality on organizational performance being
mediated by work motivation.

Discussion and Conclusion

A number of successful organizations have started to reap benefits of associating
spirituality with workplace. Multinational organizations such as the World Bank
(Laabs, 1995), AT&T, Hewlett–Packard, DuPont, Ford Motor company (Burack,
1999), Apple computers (Cavanagh, 1999) have institutionalized special pro-
grammes to add spiritual flavour to the overburdened and boring life of its
employees. AT&T sends its middle managers to three-day spiritual-cum-self-
development programmes. Trainee reported better self-understanding and
renewed positive relationship with colleagues (Cavanagh, 1999). Hewlett–
Packard implements workplace spirituality through a company philosophy that
emphasizes the values of trust and mutual respect, which in turn are believed to
contribute to cooperation and sharing a sense of purpose (Burack, 1999). World’s
largest search engine Google has started Google’s school of personal growth.
Microsoft has an online prayer service. Kris Kalra, CEO of BioGenex acknowl-
edged that he relied on Shrimad Bhagvad Gita to steer his business out of trouble.
Mediation classes have become a permanent feature of many organization’s daily
routine, namely Apple, Google, Yahoo, IBM, etc.
Although workplace spirituality has been concluded to have strong influence
over organizational performance, but researchers are not unanimous about exact
mechanism through which impact of spirituality transcends to organizational per-
formance. The present study makes a comprehensive effort by exploring as many
as five different intervening variables for probable mediating effect. Mediator or
intervening variable defines the path through which independent variable makes
an impact on dependent variable. The present study is one of the pioneer studies
that tried to explore intervening variable in the domain of workplace spirituality
studies. The study is based on Indian conceptualization of workplace spirituality
as the constructs of the studies are taken from Indian epics and from empirical
studies conducted in Indian settings. This article has also enriched the literature by
suggesting incorporation of one more indispensable and important construct of
Indian spiritualism. The new construct, kritagayata, will help in better under-
standing of workplace spirituality in Indian settings. Results were consistent with
Garg 205

initial proposition of the study. The article concludes that the two facets of organi-
zational commitment (affective and normative), employee engagement and work
motivation show partial mediation effect. As mentioned in the discussion section,
only the relationship of continuance commitment presented a result different to
what was hypothesized. In a nutshell, the results suggest that employees denote
higher affective and normative commitment, engagement and work motivation,
when their spiritual needs are satisfied at workplace, which leads to higher level
of organizational performance.
The findings of the study have a number of practical implications. It is suggested
that employer should try to institutionalize spiritual values and techniques in
organizational vision, mission, and policies and practice, so that true potential of
spiritualism could be accrued. However, spirituality should not be regarded as
common and universal solution for all organizational challenges of employee
commitment and engagement (Saks, 2009). Implementation of spirituality at
workplace must not be used as a manipulative attempt to improve performance of
the employees. Firms must endeavour to develop a holistic spiritual organiza-
tional climate so that true potential of workplace spirituality could be channelized
in appropriate direction of organizational effectiveness (Garg, 2017).
Although this research provides an empirical model of workplace spirituality
and organizational performance in the Indian context, the article has certain
limitations too. Firstly, dependent (organizational performance), mediators
(organizational commitment, employee engagement and work motivation) and
independent variables (workplace spirituality) were collected from the same
source and at the same time. This may lead to risk of common method error.
Future study may resort to double source method or longitudinal approach to
deal with common method error. Secondly, a larger sample size would have
made the study more worthwhile. Thirdly, the mediators included in this study
are also relatively highly correlated. This is to be expected given the nature of
mediators, but such high correlation presents challenges for disentangling
the unique contributions of each of these mediators in relationship between
workplace spirituality and organizational performance; also multicollinearity
between the predictor variables might affect the model fit (Grewal, Cote, &
Baumgartner, 2004). And lastly, the present work used cross-sectional approach.
No researcher can confidently claim causal relations based on cross-sectional
studies. Thus, results of present studies could be confirmed through any longi-
tudinal exploration. Future researchers may further explore workplace spiritu-
ality by conceptualizing and measuring workplace, using both qualitative and
quantitative approach. Researchers could explore integration of apparently diffe-
rent topics such as spirituality and employee-level outcomes (attitude, organiza-
tional commitment, engagement, etc.), which has the potential to enrich our
knowledge and understanding of both. Other variables such as trust, positive
emotions, organizational role stress and perceived organizational support can be
investigated for probable mediating effect. Further, other variables such as indi-
vidual characteristics, gender, experiences and leader behaviours could also be
explored for possible moderating effect. This re-synthesis could lead to new
and exciting researches for the benefit individuals and organizations. Further,
206 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

the methodology adapted in the study could be replicated in other cultures, but
with different dimensions of spirituality.

Acknowledgement
The author is extremely grateful to Dr Ritu Tripathi (IIM-Banglore) for her useful sugges-
tions to improve the quality of the article.

Appendix A: Workplace Spirituality (Garg, 2017; Pandey et al., 2009)

1. My job helps me to understand my life’s purpose (swadharma).
2. Working here makes my life meaningful (swadharma).
3. Working here is a means for realizing my real self (swadharma).
4. Work itself is enjoyable for me (swadharma).
5. I am deeply involved in my work here (swadharma).
6. When stuck with a problem, people here feel free to ask for (choose a number for
each option/alternative): (Sense of community)
(a) advice from colleagues;
(b) advice from a superior;
(c) help from their colleagues; and
(d) help from a superior.
7. Peoples’ actions here are aligned with their words (authenticity).
8. People here own up to mistakes with others in the group (authenticity).
9. People here perform their duties, as if they contribute to the (choose a number for
option/alternative): (lokasangraha)
(a) community;
(b) society at large; and
(c) humankind in general.
10. People here try to avoid wastage of any kind (paper, electricity, etc.) (lokasangraha).
11. People here are concerned about the natural environment while working here
(lokasangraha).
12. I put my 100 per cent in my work (Karma capital).
13. Working itself provides me satisfaction (Karma capital).
14. My job helps me to realize feverishness of achievement of the desired results
(Karma capital).
15. People here realize that good actions are reciprocated (Karma capital).
16. I am grateful for being part of this organization (kritagayata).
17. My job makes me understand that I have numerous things to cherish in my life
(kritagayata).
18. I am thankful for whatever I have in my life (kritagayata).

References
Adams, V. H., Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., Kings, E. A., Simpson, D. R., & Pulvers, K. M.
(2003). Hope in workplace. In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds), The handbook
of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (pp. 367–377). Armonk, NY:
M.E. Sharpe.
Agarwal, S. P. (1997). The social role of the Gita: How and why. India: Motilal Banarsidass
Publications.
Albrecht, S. L. (2012). The influence of job, team and organizational level resources on
employee well-being, engagement, commitment and extra-role performance: Test of
Garg 207

a model. International Journal of Manpower, Special Issue Theme: Changing Work

Environments and Employee Wellbeing, 33(1), 840–853.
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (2000). Construct validation in organizational behavior
research: The case of organizational commitment. In R. D. Goffin & E. Helmes (Eds),
Problems and solutions in human assessment: Honoring Douglas N. Jackson at seventy
(pp. 285–314). Norwell, MA: Kluwer.
Andrew, O. C., & Sofian, S. (2012). Individual factors and work outcomes of employee
engagement. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 409(1), 498–508.
Angle, H. L., & Perry, J. L. (1981). An empirical assessment of organizational commitment
and organizational effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(1), 1–14.
Aselage, J., & Eisenberger, R. (2003). Perceived organizational support and psycho-
logical contracts: A theoretical integration. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
24(5), 491–509.
Ashmos, D. P., & Duchon, D. (2000). Spirituality at work: A conceptualization and measure.
Journal of Management Inquiry, 9(2), 134–145.
Bakiev, E. (2011). Determinants of interpersonal trust, organizational commitment for
performance within Kyrgyz national police (Unpublished dissertation). Florida,
Orlando: University of Central.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in
social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.
Bates, S. (2004). Getting engaged. HR Magazine, 49(2), 44–51.
Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2011). Spirituality and Indian psychology. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Biberman, J., & Whitty, M. (1997). A postmodern spiritual future for work. Journal of
Organizational Change Management, 10(2), 130–138.
Bierly, P., Kessler, E., & Christensen, E. (2000). Organizational learning, knowledge and
wisdom. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 13(6), 595–618.
Bromet, E. J., Dew, A., & Parkinson, D. K. (1990). Spillover between work and family:
A study of blue-collar working wives. In J. Eckenrode & S. Gore (Eds), Stress between
work and family (pp. 133–152). London: Plenum.
Brown, S. P., & Leigh, T. W. (1996). A new look at psychological climate and its rela-
tionship to job involvement, effort, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology,
81(4), 358–368.
Burack, E. H. (1999). Spirituality in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Change
Management, 12(4), 280–291.
Burroughs, S. M., & Eby, L. T. (1998). Psychological sense of community at work:
A measurement system and explanatory framework. Journal of Community Psycho-
logy, 26(6), 509–532.
Cavanagh, G. (1999). Spirituality for managers: context and critique. Journal of Organiza-
tional Change Management, 12(3), 186–199.
Chakraborty, S. K. (2006). The “Nishkam Karma” principle: Its relevance to effectiveness
and ethics. IIMB Management Review, 18(2), 115.
Covey, S. R. (2009). The leader in me: How schools and parents around the world are
inspiring greatness, one child at a time. New York, NY: Franklin Covey Co.
Dehler. G. E., & Welsh, M. A. (1994). Spirituality and organizational transformation,
implications for the new management paradigm. Journal of Managerial Psychology,
9(6), 1–10.
———. (2003). The experience of work: Spirituality and the new workplace. In R. A.
Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organi-
zational performance (pp. 108–122). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
208 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

Delbecq, A. L. (1999). Christian spirituality and contemporary business leadership.

Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(4), 345–354.
Dillard, A. (1982). Teaching a stone to talk: Expeditions and encounters. New York, NY:
Harper & Row.
Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P. D., & Rhoades, L. (2001). Reciproca-
tion of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 42–51.
Elliot, A., & Zahn, I. (2008). Motivation. In N. Sal kind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational
psychology (pp. 687–693). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Emmons, R. A. (2000). Is spirituality intelligence? Motivation, cognition, and the psycho-
logy of ultimate concern. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 10(1),
3–26.
Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and quest for
meaning. San Fancisco, CA: Harper Collins.
Fry, L. W. (2005). Toward a theory of ethical and spiritual well-being and corporate
social responsibility through spiritual leadership. Forthcoming in R. A. Giacalone &
C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds), Positive psychology in business ethics and corporate respon-
sibility. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Fry, L., Hannah, S., Noel, M., & Walumbwa, F. (2011). Impact of spiritual leadership on
unit performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(2), 259–270.
Fry, L. W., Vitucci, S., & Cedillo, M. (2005). Spiritual leadership and army transformation:
Theory, measurement, and establishing a baseline. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(50),
835–862.
Garcia-Zamor, J., & Jean-Claude. (2003). Workplace Spirituality and Organizational
Performance. Public Administration Review, 63(3), 355–363.
Garg, N. (2014). Employee engagement and individual differences: A study in Indian
context. Management Studies and Economics System, 1(1), 31–40.
———. (2017). Workplace Spirituality and Employee Well-being: An Empirical Explo-
ration. Journal of Human Values, 23(2), 129–147
Garg, N., & Sharma, B. (2015). The mediating role of employee engagement in the relation-
ship between high performance work practices and job performance. NMIMS Manage-
ment Review, 27(April–June), 85–102.
Gavin, J. H., & Mason, R. O. (2004). The virtuous organization: The value of happiness in
the workplace. Organizational Dynamics, 33(4), 379–392.
George, R. G., Sorenson, G. J., & Bums, J. M. (2004). Encyclopedia of leadership (Vol. 4).
London: SAGE Publications.
Giacalone, R., & Jurkiewicz, C. (2003). Handbook of workplace spirituality and organiza-
tional performance. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Giacalone, R. A., Jurkiewicz, C. L., and Fry, L. W. (2005). From advocacy to science:
The next steps in workplace spirituality research. In R. Paloutzian, (Ed.), Handbook of
psychology and religion. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American
Sociological Review, 25(2), 161–178.
Grewal, R., Cote, J. A., & Baumgartner, H. (2004). Multicollinearity and measurement
error in structural equation models: Implications for theory testing. Marketing Science,
23(4), 519–529.
Guay, F. (2010). Intrinsic, identified, and controlled types of motivation for school sub-
jects in young elementary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
80(4), 711–735.
Guillory, W. A. (2000). The Living Organization: Spirituality in the Workplace. Salt Lake
City, UT: Innovation International.
Garg 209

Heaton, D. P., Schmidt-Wilk, J., & Travis, F. (2004). Constructs, Methods, and Measures
for Researching Spirituality in Organizations. Journal of Organizational Change
Management, 17(1), 62–82.
Houghton, J. D., Neck, C. P., & Krishnakumar, S. (2016). The what, why, and how of
spirituality in the workplace revisited: A 14-year update and extension. Journal of
Management, Spirituality & Religion, 13(3), 177–205.
Ingersoll, R. E. (2003). Spiritual wellness in the workplace. In R. A. Giacalone &
C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational
performance (pp. 289–299). New York, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Irons, J., & Buskist, W. (2008). Operant Conditioning. In S. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds),
21st Century psychology: a reference handbook (pp. 1–340). Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications.
James, M. S., Miles, A. K., & Mullins, T. (2011). The interactive effects of spirituality
and trait cynicism on citizenship and counterproductive work behaviors. Journal of
Management, Spirituality & Religion, 8(2), 165–182.
Javanmard, H. (2012). The impact of spirituality on work performance. Indian Journal of
Science and Technology, 5(1), 1961–1966.
Johnson, G. (2004). Otherwise engaged. Training, 41(10), 4.
Jurkiewicz, C. L., & Giacalone, R. A. (2004). A values framework for measuring the
impact of workplace spirituality on organizational performance. Journal of Business
Ethics, 49(2), 129–142.
Karakas, F. (2010). Spirituality and performance: A literature review. Journal of Business
Ethics, 94(1), 89–106.
Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruc-
tion of working life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. (1998). Procedural Justice, Strategic Decision Making, and
the Knowledge Economy. Strategic Management Journal, 19(4), 323–333.
Kinjerski, V. M., & Skrypnek, B. J. (2004). Defining spirit at work: Finding common
ground. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17(1), 26–42.
Kohlberg, L., & Ryncarz, R. A. (1990). Beyond justice reasoning: Moral development
and consideration of a seventh stage. In C. E. Alexander & E. J. Langer (Eds), Higher
stages of human development (pp. 191–207). New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.
Konz, N. P. G., & Ryan, F. X. (1999). Maintaining an organizational spirituality: No easy
task. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(3), 200–210.
Korac-Kakabadse, N., Kouzmin, A., & Kakabadse, A. (2002). Spirituality and leadership
praxis. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 165–182.
Kowalski, B. (2003). The engagement gap. Training, 40(4), 62.
Krahnke, K., Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Point counterpoint: Measur-
ing workplace spirituality. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 16(4),
396–405.
Kriger, M., & Hanson, B. (1999). A value-based paradigm for creating truly healthy organi-
zations. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12(4), 302–317.
Krishnakumar, S., & Neck, C. P. (2002). The “what”, “why” and “how” of spirituality in
the workplace. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 153–164.
Laabs, J. J. (1995). Balancing spirituality and work. Personnel Journal, 74(9), 60–72.
Lloyd, T. (1990). The nice company. London: Bloomsbury.
Maleki, M. R., Jafari, H., Safari, H., Khodayari Zarnaq, R (2012). The Relationship
between Spiritual Leadership and Quality of Work Life in an Iranian Educational-
Medical Hospital. Health Information Management, 525.
210 South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management 4(2)

Malik, M. E., & Naeem, B. (2011). Role of spirituality in job satisfaction and organiza-
tional commitment among faculty of institutes of higher learning in Pakistan. African
Journal of Business Management, 55(4), 1236–1244.
Markos, S., & Sridevi, M. (2010). Employee engagement: The key to improving perfor-
mance. International Journal of Business and Management, 5(12), 89–96.
Marques, J., Dhiman, S., & King, R. (2007). Spirituality in the workplace: What it is, why
it matters, how to make it work for you. Fawnskin, CA: Personhozzod Press.
May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaning-
fulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal
of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11–37
McCormick, D. W. (1994). Spirituality and management. Journal of Managerial Psycho-
logy, 9(6), 5–8.
Mehta, D., & Mehta, N. (2013). Employee engagement: A literature review. Economia
Seria Management, 16, 208–215.
Meyer, J. P., & Herscovitch, L. (2001). Commitment in the workplace: Toward a general
model. Human Resource Management Review, 11(3) 299–326.
Miller, W. C. (2001, May). Responsible leadership. Executive Excellence, 18(5), 3–4.
Milliman, J., Czaplewski, A. J., & Ferguson, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and
employee work attitudes: An exploratory empirical assessment. Journal of Organiza-
tional Change Management, 16(4), 426–447.
Mitroff, I., & Denton, E. (1999a). A study of spirituality in the workplace. Sloan Manage-
ment Review, 40(4), 83–92.
Mitroff, I., & Denton, E. (1999b). A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America: A Hard Look
at Spirituality, Religion, and Values in the Workplace (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass Publishers.
Moore, T. W., & Casper, W. J. (2006). An examination of proxy measures of workplace
spirituality: A profile model of multidimensional constructs. Journal of Leadership and
Organizational Studies, 12(4), 109–118.
Nash, L., & McLennan, S. (2001). Church on Sunday, work on Monday: The challenge of
fusing Christian values with business life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Naylor, T., Willimon, W., & Osterberg, R. (1996). The search for community in the work-
place. Business and Society Review, 97(1), 42–47.
Neck, C. P., & Milliman, J. F. (1994). Thought self-leadership: Finding spiritual fulfilment
in organizational life. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 9(6), 9–16.
Pandey, A., Gupta, R. K., & Arora, A. P. (2009). Spiritual climate of business organizations
and its impact on customers’ experience. Journal of Business Ethics, 88(2), 313–332.
Pandey, A., Gupta, R. K., & Kumar, P. (2016). Spiritual climate and its impact on learning
in teams in business organizations. Global Business Review, 17(3S), 1S–14S.
Pfeffer, J. (2010). Business and the spirit: Management practices that sustain values.
In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds), Handbook of workplace spirituality and
organizational performance (pp. 27–43). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
Pfeffer, J., & Vega, J. F. (1999). Putting people first for organizational success. The Academy
of Management Executive, 13(2), 37–45.
Ran, B. (2009). Motivation. In C. Wankel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of business in today’s
Research in Personality, 42(4), 1109–1115.
Rastogi, R., & Dave, V. (2004). Managerial effectiveness: A function of personality type
and organizational components. Singapore Management Review, 26(2), 79–87.
Rego, A., & Souto, S. (2004). Comprometimento organizacional em organizac¸
o˜esautentizo´ticas [Organizational commitment in authentizotic organizations]. Revista
de Administrac¸a˜o deEmpresas, 44(3), 30–43.
Garg 211

Richman, A. (2006). Everyone wants an engaged workforce how can you create it?.
Workspan, 49(1), 36–39.
Şahin, I. (2010). Organizational social capital and perceived performance of drug law
enforcement departments: A case study of Turkey (Unpublished dissertation). Univer-
sity of Central Florida, Orlando, FL.
Saks, A. M. (2006). Antecedents and Consequences of Employee Engagement. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 21(7), 600–619.
Sebastian, C. D. (2003). The essential teachings of Bhagavad Gita. Jnanatirtha: Interna-
tional Journal of Sacred Scriptures, 3(2), 193–203.
Settoon, R. P., Bennett, N., & Liden, R. C. (1996). Social exchange in organizations:
Perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, and employee reciprocity.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(1), 219–227.
Shamila, V. J. (2013). Employee engagement: An approach to organizational excellence.
International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research, 2(5), 111–117.
Sharma, A., Karim S. F., & Jain, V. (2015). An Evaluation of Consumer Perception and
Attitude towards the Usage of Plastic Money in India. International Journal of Science
Technology and Management, 4(9), 80–86.
Sharma, S. (1999). Corporate Gita: Lessons for Management. Administration and Leader-
ship. Journal of Human Values, 5(2), 103–123.
Singh, K. (2004). Impact of HR practices on perceived firm performance in India.
Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 42(3), 301–317.
Shouksmith, G. (1989). A construct validity of a scale for measuring work motivation.
New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 18(1), 76–81.
Siddiqi, M. (2015). Work engagement and job crafting of service employee influencing
customer outcomes. The Journal for Decision Makers, 40(1), 277–292.
Sri Sri Ravi Shankar. (2008). Celebrating Silence. Bangalore, India: Sri Sri Publications
Trust.
Tepper, B. J. (2003). Organizational citizenship behavior and the spiritual employee.
In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds), Handbook of workplace spirituality and
organizational performance (pp.181–190). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Thompson, W. D. (2000). Can you train people to be spiritual? Training and Development,
54(12), 18–19.
Truss, C., Shantz, A., Soane, E., Alfes, K., & Delbrige, R. (2013). Employee engagement,
organizational performance and individual well-being: Evidence, developing the theory.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(14), 2657–2669.
Turner, J. (1999). Spirituality in the workplace. CA Magazine, 132(10), 41–42.
Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. (2000). SQ: Spiritual intelligence the ultimate intelligence. London:
Bloomsbury.