International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

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International Journal of Thermofluids

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Expansion cooling prospects for large scale applications

Abdul Hai Alami a, b, *, Rashid Alrashid b, c, Ayman Mdallal a, b, Ahmad Yasin b, d,
Mohamad Ayoub a, b, Shamma Alasad c, Haya Aljaghoub b, e, Adnan Alashkar f,
Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem a, b, g, Abdul Ghani Olabi a, b, h, Mehmet Orhan c
a
Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
b
Sustainable Energy and Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, American University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
d
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, American University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
e
Department of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
f
Materials Science and Engineering PhD Program, American University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
g
Chemical Engineering Department, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt
h
Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Air conditioning in general and cooling in particular are the biggest energy sinks among all electricity consumers.
Expansion cooling Mitigating energy needs of this sector by active or passive means is a necessity. This paper offers a comprehensive
Compressed air energy storage review of various cooling technologies for large scale applications and compares them in terms of economy,
District cooling
environmental footprint and most importantly, energy requirements. There is a main focus on the potential of
Waste heat recovery
using expansion cooling, which is defined in conjunction with cooling effects generated during the expansion
process of a gas. The interest in such cooling technology stems from the double benefit of utilizing a large-scale
compressed air energy storage (CAES) system that can also provide cooling via the expansion of air. This
consequently manifests in reducing the electrical demand required for cooling applications. Such a concept is
beneficial for hot climates, where most of the electrical demand is reserved for offsetting the cooling load.

1. Introduction of 33.1 Gigatons in 2019, marking a 0.6% rise from the previous year
[4].
The world’s present energy situation is defined by an ever-increasing There are various aspects to consider regarding domestic energy
need for energy, which is driven by both the expansion of economic consumption in households across the globe. The energy share for
activity and the world’s population. This need is mostly satisfied by the different sectors have also fluctuated throughout the timeline of the
combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, which account development of their related technologies. A main step for energy saving
for the vast majority of the world’s emissions of greenhouse gasses. The is to know which appliances bear the largest load and energy con­
International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that the demand for energy sumption, also known as the energy balance. In the United Arab Emir­
on a worldwide scale grew by 2.3% in 2018 [1].In terms of main energy ates (UAE), for instance, the Dubai electricity and water authority
sources, fossil fuels accounted for around 81% of the world’s energy mix (DEWA) estimates a 20,000-kWh electricity consumption per person
in 2019 [2]. Oil was the greatest source of primary energy, accounting [5]. As shown in Fig. 1, 50% of households’ energy usage is attributed to
for approximately 30%, followed by coal and natural gas, which cooling in the Middle East. Due to extreme high temperatures in the
accounted for 27% and 24%, respectively [3]. The use of fossil fuels has UAE, air conditioning (AC) technologies must be kept up-to-date and
resulted in enormous environmental issues, such as air pollution and maintained regularly for an efficient operation, and to attenuate the
climate change. Burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas re­ high energy consumption by this sector [5]. On a broader scale, the IEA
leases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, where CO2 is regarded estimates that the process of cooling buildings accounts for around 38%
as one the of the primary greenhouse gasses responsible for climate of the total worldwide power consumption associated with air condi­
change. The amount of carbon dioxide emissions hit a new all-time high tioning [6]. By 2050, there will be 5.6 billion air conditioners in

* Corresponding author at: Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
E-mail address: aalalami@[Link] (A.H. Alami).

[Link]

Available online 8 August 2023

2666-2027/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Fig. 1. Energy consumption by domestic sector in the Middle East - per household [5].

buildings accross the globe, as compared to the current number of 1.6 ones, with all pertinent techno-economic and environmental benefits.
billion [7]. The process is a byproduct of large scale CAES installations that utilize
There are various types of cooling technologies that are implemented the cooling effect of expanding gasses for air conditioning applications.
to accommodate for cooling loads of various scales. For instance, district An added benefit, also explored in this review, is the utilization of waste
cooling systems utilize underground networks of pipes to supply chilled heat generated from the process of compressing the air in storage cav­
water to multiple buildings, where the water flows through heat- erns. This is done by recuperating the waste heat via heat pipes or heat
exchangers that act as a medium between the chilled water and the pumps which contribute to the overall cooling effect via absorption
building space to-be-cooled [8]. Centralizing the cooling load in a chillers or Organic Rankine Cycles.
country like the UAE, allows for energy savings up to 35% [9] in com­
parison to conventional cooling technologies that utilize chillers, as 2. Conventional refrigeration systems
district cooling has better cooling quality, reliability, humidity control,
noise control, and more tolerable building aesthetics. Moreover, 2.1. Air Conditioning, HVAC systems, and absorption chillers
expansion cooling technologies can be utilized in a district cooling
context, which has shown superior desirable merits such as a high de­ Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) are used as
gree of flexibility, and precise cooling control under various load con­ comprehensive systems in buildings throughout construction. Their
ditions. Expansion cooling is a phenomenon characterized by the function, whether in residences, or workplaces, is to promote comfort by
reduction in temperature of a fluid resulting from either the expansion of changing the characteristics of the air, often by chilling the air within, as
its volume or the decrease in its pressure. Moreover, expansion cooling well as controlling moisture and humidity [11]. Air conditioning (AC), a
can be integrated as an ancillary process to pre-existing technologies subpart of HVAC, is the process of eliminating heat from a confined
such as Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) [10]. CAES is primarily space to maintain comfortable temperature levels. The compression
used as a method of storing energy. However, there is an indirect rela­ refrigeration cycle is only one route to achieving thermal comfort in hot
tion in which CAES can be linked to cooling systems in certain scenarios, climates. Since it is energy intensive, expensive and has adverse envi­
particularly in large-scale industrial settings or combined power plants. ronmental effects due to the utilization of refrigerants, other cycles have
In a typical CAES system, excess energy from power generation (e.g., been proposed that utilize waste heat to produce a cooling effect. Ab­
during periods of low demand or high renewable energy output) is used sorption chillers are such types of refrigeration systems that operate
to compress air and store it in underground caverns or high-pressure between a heat source and a cooling target that drive the cooling pro­
containers. When the energy demand increases or during peak pe­ cess. This effect takes place instead of using a mechanical compressor
riods, the compressed air is released, expanded, and used to drive tur­ [12]. In CAES systems, the heat generated from the compression
bines to generate electricity again. Fortunately, a great opportunity lies (charging) stage can and will be used to augment the cooling process
in utilizing waste thermal energy associated with the compression and through an absorption chiller. The heat can be attained and transferred
decompression stages of CAES systems in heating and cooling applica­ from the air using heat pumps or heat pipes and thus air enters the
tions. Such technologies pave the path for more sustainable and storage cavern at low temperature. The proposed absorption chillers
renewable energy generation, consumption, and storage. consist of two main chambers each harboring two key components. One
In this paper, various cooling technologies are presented and eval­ chamber holds an absorber and an evaporator, while the other holds a
uated. While conventional cooling technologies rely mainly on generator and a condenser. A solution with absorbent materials is
compression refrigeration cycles, their electrical demand to offset the initially stored in the absorber, which is then pumped to the generator
cooling load usually accounts for the lion share of the country-wide through a heat exchanger to enhance the performance of the cycle. At
electrical bill. The coupling of energy storage and cooling technologies the generator side, heat from an external source is supplied to the so­
can be amenable in the case of large-scale compressed air energy storage lution, thus evaporating the solvent (water) and leaving behind a
(CAES) installations, where “adding heat” to the expanding gas is concentrated absorbent. The water vapor product from the generator
needed to prevent two-phase flows in turbomachinery and enhances flows to the condenser, or a cooling tower, where the vapor condenses
their operational efficiency. An air-water heat exchanger can be used to due to a sufficient drop in pressure. The condensed vapor then flows
heat the air by simultaneously cooling the water that will then be ready through an expansion valve to the evaporator, absorbing the heat from
for circulation in a chiller for district air conditioning applications. This the to-be-cooled-space. Finally, water/refrigerant is pumped from the
is proposed as a potential replacement to compression refrigeration evaporator to the absorber to regenerate the water-absorbent solution

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Table 1 manufacturer and model, ranging from 350 to 11,630 kW (100–3300

AC types (cycles and materials), integrated technologies and performance pa­ tons) or 350–6890 kW (100–2000 tons), for steam and hot water/
rameters summary. lithium bromide absorption chillers, respectively [13]. Coefficient of
Absorption Absorber- Integrated AC COP Refs. performance (COP), which is the refrigeration output/heat input, ranges
chiller type refrigerant technologies Capacity between 0.7 and 0.9 for single effect absorption chillers, and reaches
Single Water/ Semicircular 17.6 kW 0.42 [16] values close to 1.15 for double effect absorption chillers [14].
Effect ammonia non-tracking (5 ton) Ammonia/water absorption chillers refrigerate using ammonia and
trough solar absorb with water. Unlike water/lithium bromide absorption chillers,
collector
ammonia chillers can operate at temperatures around − 80 ◦ C, with
(efficiency
~59%) capacities ranging between 5 and 100 kW (1.5–28 tons). Ammonia is
Single LiBr/water Single slope 20 kW 0.85 [17] toxic; thus, it must be employed in well-ventilated locations and regu­
Effect desalination. (~6 ton) negatively lated more often than other alternatives [12]. Ammonia/water absorp­
Waste heat affected by tion chillers perform with COP ranging between 0.5 and up to 0.6 [15].
recovery for lithium
water vapor bromide
This technology’s low temperatures make it feasible and effective
leaving the strong despite its lower COP when compared to lithium bromide. Ammonia/­
generator, solution water/hydrogen absorption chillers, also called diffusion-absorption
lithium heat chillers, can operate silently in recreational vehicles [12].
bromide recovery
Similar to absorber and refrigerant materials, absorption chiller cy­
strong
solution and cles have evolved. A simplified single effect absorption chiller where the
hot liquid primary input is external heat, and the only work is circulating the
water absorbent or refrigerant provides for improved external waste heat use.
Half effect Ammonia/ – – [emim] [18] Multi-effect or double-effect absorption chillers employ waste heat from
ionic [BF4] 0.342
the higher temperature input stage to heat the lower temperature input.
liquids (highest
cooling Table 1 shows absorption chillers based on half cycles, multiple source
capacity) cycles, and pre-established technologies.
[dema][Ac]
0.330
2.2. Cold storage systems
[DMP] 0.3
[emim]
[SCN] 0.29 Cold storage systems can be categorized as sensible or latent. Sen­
Half effect LiBr/H2O Fuel cells. – – [19] sible energy (heat) is heat that is transferred from one system to another,
Low changing temperatures along the process. Sensible energy can also be
temperature
polymers.
defined as the energy that can be felt. For instance, sensible heat is
Electrolyte manifested in phenomenon such as the warming of air without phase
membrane change [22]. In a cooling system, sensible heat is observed in the re­
fuel cells frigerant’s operation, where the temperature of the flowing refrigerant
(moderate
changes without changes in its phase [23]. Energy consumption in
input
temperature cooling and heating systems that are integrated in residential buildings
~80 C).
○
pose as a significant setback due to the shortage of energy resources and
Double LiBr/H2O Biomass-based – – [20] the notable emission levels that they are responsible for. Thus, incor­
effect solid oxide porating energy storage systems help mitigate these negative effects by
fuel cell.
Osmosis
increasing the efficiency through reducing waste heat and maximizing
desalination. the output of system [24]. There is a wide variety of options when it
waste heat comes to sensible heat technologies that can be used for cooling pur­
from SOFC poses. Aquifer, gravel water, borehole, cavern, underground, pebble
used as
bed, molten salt, hot silicon, and molten aluminum thermal energy
generator heat
supplier. storage systems have been used and tested with potential results that can
Double effect - Dual source Fossil fuel Fossil fuel Fossil fuel [21] lead to gradual transfer from conventional cooling technologies [25].
mixed effect waste heat waste waste heat - Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) is based on the utilization of
(exhaust gas heat - 0.91 natural underground water to store energy that is transferred via
waste heat). 260 kW Solar
solar energy (~73 ton) energy
extracting the groundwater, running it through a heat exchanger and
powered (hot Solar powered - reinjecting in a separate well [26]. In most cases, an ATES consists of two
water from energy 0.6 wells: a cold well and a warm well, linked through a heat pump. The cold
solar thermal powered - well is responsible for providing cooling during the summer months;
collector 150 kW
however, in the event that the capacity given by the cold well is insuf­
matrix). (~43 ton)
ficient, the heat pump is used to boost the amount of cooling that can be
delivered to the facility [27].
and return it to its initial concentration, and the cycle carries on. Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) is a sensible heat technology
From absorbent and refrigerant vantage points, there are three main that depends on heat exchangers that are stacked up in a lateral
types of absorption chillers: water/lithium-bromide, ammonia/water, configuration within the soil/ground. These stacks make direct contact
and ammonia/water/hydrogen absorption chillers. Water/lithium bro­ with underground sand and rocks (a heat sink). Partially cool water
mide chillers utilize a lithium bromide solution as an absorber and water flows (from the load side) through dry coolers and then through
as a refrigerant (working fluid) which ultimately poses a lower limit to reversing valves and subsequently to the BTES, and back to the load.
the operating (refrigerating) temperature to 0 C. Water/lithium bro­
○
Once at the load, the cool water emits its energy (coolness) to the core of
mide absorption chillers are mainly used for air conditioning applica­ the bore and leaves partially heated for winter applications. For summer
tions, with a variable refrigeration capacity depending on the applications, the water flow is reversed, as it goes from the cool bore to
the load for the purpose of space cooling where water is heated by space.

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Table 2
Sensible storage projects.
Technology Location Cooling capacity/production Well temperature [ ◦ C] Well flow rate [L/s] Refs.

Ground source heat pump ATES Spain Tertiary 400 kW Carbonated well (10–20) Carbonated (20–200) [29]
residential 50 kW Detrital (9–201) Detrital (1–150)
Volcanic (11–13)
Doublet type ATES Esker-Stockholm, 743 MWh - first 3 annual cycles undisturbed underground temperature of 9.5 50 [30]
Sweden
ATES Finland 36 weeks winter - 210 MWh Extraction winter 907 m3/day [31]
16 weeks summer- 1629 MWh winter 7.3 - summer 3.9 summer 2134 m3/day
Reinjection
winter 2.2 - summer 7.2
BTES Denmark ~1.9 GWh storage volume temp (43 ± 5) 60 - 17 [32]
BTES Czech Republic – 75–12 – [33]
Solar/BTES Canada ~843.16 MWh ~ 37 – [34]
CTES Finland 1.4–7.1 GWh ~95 [35]
CTES Vantaa - Finland 90 GWh ~140 [36]

stored using this method. Fig. 2 shows the latent heat storage for
solid-liquid phase change at a fixed temperature [39].
Phase change materials (PCMs) are used to store latent heat energy,
as they change their physical states to release or absorb energy. While
energy storage density increases, latent heat storage volume decreases
[41]. Based on the utilized material, PCMs can be categorized into
organic, inorganic and eutectic. Organic chemical components include
esters, fatty acids, alcohols, glycols, and polymers like polyethylene
glycol (PEG); inorganic components include salt hydrates, alloys, and
metals; and eutectic components include organic-organic, inorganic-i­
norganic, and inorganic-organic PCMs. Table 3 lists the benefits and
drawbacks of various PCMs [39]. Most phase transition processes have
only slight temperature changes, which can be controlled by improved
mixing. After phase transition, the PCMs temperature will rise again.
During cooling, the material’s temperature remains stable until the
phase changes. Thermal energy is released, and intermolecular in­
teractions are reestablished, resulting in an isothermal process until the
substance returns to its starting state. As the temperature drops during
cooling, sensible heat will be released. Cool energy media are typically
used throughout the day and stored as ice, cooled water, eutectic salt
Fig. 2. Latent heat storage for solid-liquid phase change - redrawn [40]. solution, or PCMs such as paraffin, alkanes, and fatty acids.

Cavern thermal energy storage (CTES) stores energy within water in

underground caverns or artificial tanks. The pressure caused by the 2.3. District cooling with chilled water and storage
system allows energy to be stored in (liquid) water for temperatures
reaching ~130 ◦ C, sourced by the waste energy from a small town/city District cooling is an efficient approach to supply chilled water from
which provides cooling to the source spaces. Table 2. provides a sum­ a central refrigeration facility to interconnected networks of insulated
mary of the sensible heat storage projects around the world [28]. pipes to cool buildings in certain regions of a city. The buildings’ heat
The heat dissipated or absorbed by a system undergoing a phase exchanger transports the cold water, then absorbs the heat from the
change at constant temperature is known as latent heat [37]. Latent water and returns it to the central unit through a closed return pipe. It is
thermal energy storage involves the phase transition of the storage an important part of the energy infrastructure of cities around the world
medium, which stores thermal energy. Thermal energy can be released aimed to reduce the load on the power grid, which accounts for 50–70%
at almost fixed temperatures during a medium’s phase shift. In contrast of the peak power demand.
to sensible thermal storage, latent storage provides thermal storage The economic feasibility of district cooling systems has been
densities that are 5 to 15 times higher [38]. Depending on the properties considered in several studies and proven to be a valid feasible solution to
of the selected material, a significant quantity of heat or cold can be replace old compression refrigerators [46]. Due to their low cost and
high efficiency, district cooling systems are frequently used to supply

Table 3
The main advantages and disadvantages of different types of PCMs.
Organic Inorganic Eutectics Refs.

Advantages – Compatible with other materials. – High latent heat of fusion. – High volumetric storage density. [39,42–45]
– Chemically stable – High thermal conductivity. – High melting temperature.
– High latent heat of fusion. – Not expensive – Supercooling is low
– Non-hazardous – Inflammable – Chemically and thermally stable.
– Supercooling is low
Disadvantages – Low thermal conductivity. – Not thermally stable. – Unavailable thermophysical property analysis data [42–45]
– Highly flammable – Corrosive
– Low enthalpy of phase change. – High chance of supercooling
– Change of volume is high – Highly subjected to volume changes.

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Table 4 reducing water consumption and addressing the issue of cooling tower
Characteristics of district cooling storage mediums [51,56]. water discharge. This aspect of the system contributes to the promotion
Parameter Ice thermal Chilled water Phase change materials of sustainable water management practices [51] .
storage storage (Eutectic salt) District cooling systems experience a range of challenges that
Specific heat (kJ/kg. 2 4.2 – necessitate attention in order to ensure their optimal and
K) environmentally-friendly-function. Some of the key obstacles lie in the
Latent heat (kJ/kg) 334 – 80 to 250 considerable initial costs and infrastructure demands related to con­
Charging − 6 to − 3 4 to 6 4 to 6 structing chilled water facilities, establishing distribution networks, and
temperature (◦ C)
Discharging 1 to 3 7 to 10 9 to 10
facilitating customer connections [52]. The attainment of energy effi­
temperature (◦ C) ciency is a significant consideration, as the presence of heat losses within
Coefficient of 2.7 to 4 5 to 6 5 to 6 the distribution network, ineffective building designs, and poor control
performance strategies may affect the overall efficiency of the system [53,54]. The
management of cooling demand variability and seasonal imbalances
presents additional challenges, as the system can experience strain
cooling for residential, commercial, and industrial areas, as well as for
during peak cooling periods and underutilization of resources during
houses. Moreover, district cooling is known to be more energy efficient
periods of low demand. The process of integrating district cooling
than conventional cooling systems that are installed to benefit single
infrastructure with existing buildings incurs complicated retrofitting
units of industrial or commercial buildings [47]. District cooling exhibits
procedures, which include the installation of heat exchangers and cir­
beneficial characteristics in regions that have high cooling density,
culation systems. Anticipating future demand growth and effectively
which refers to densely populated areas with a substantial need for air
accommodating new developments requires the incorporation of
conditioning, such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region. The
long-term planning and scalability as critical factors. Long-term plan­
cost-effectiveness of district cooling in highly populated cities surpasses
ning and scalability are essential for forecasting cooling demand and
that of conventional cooling options at the individual building level by
accommodating new developments. Permitting, licensing, and envi­
combining the demand for cold air and energy efficiency [48]. A district
ronmental and energy requirements must be considered by decision
cooling plant can take advantage of centralized technologies to optimize
makers [52].
and regulate energy consumption [47]. Centralization also comes with
The load-shifting of district cooling from on-peak to off-peak hours is
the benefit of lower maintenance costs given that it is designed with
accomplished by the use of energy storage systems, which are depicted
efficiency in mind and uses larger equipments. Furthermore, it is
in Table 4 [55]. Fig. 3 demonstrates the main branches of thermal en­
important to highlight a beneficial aspect of district cooling in terms of
ergy storage for district cooling. A reliable thermal energy storage sys­
space efficiency, especially in highly populated cities. The elimination of
tem is associated with low thermal losses throughout the storage period,
multiple cooling units in each building has been found to have major
high discharge efficiency, and low costs. Moreover, cool thermal energy
effects on land usage and planning in cities. By removing the need for
storage systems have low adverse effects on the environment and are
these units, valuable space can be freed up, allowing for alternative uses
commercially available [51].
that can contribute to more efficient land utilization resulting in
improved planning strategies. In addition, it is worth noting that district
cooling systems offer a reliable and consistent supply of chilled water, 3. Expansion cooling
thereby guaranteeing a smooth and uninterrupted cooling service for the
buildings they provide for [49]. The environmental benefits of district The expansion cooling cycle, also known as the Joule-Thomson
cooling are found to be notable in various research studies. District cooling cycle, is a thermodynamic process commonly used for applica­
cooling systems have the potential to significantly mitigate the envi­ tions that require cooling to low temperatures. This cycle involves the
ronmental impact of cooling systems by optimizing energy usage and expansion of a high-pressure gas through a throttling valve or porous
incorporating renewable and waste heat sources [50]. In addition, plug, resulting in a decrease in temperature. The Joule-Thomson effect
closed-loop systems have been found to have a significant impact on states that the gas cools down as it expands. This principle is utilized in
various cooling applications, including refrigeration and air

Fig. 3. The stratification of thermal district cooling storage mediums.

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

or nitrogen) once it has been compressed to the supercritical state. To

begin, the high-pressure working medium passes via the recuperator,
where it is precooled by the cold gas that is returned to the system (1 - 2).
After that, the working medium with the high pressure and low tem­
perature goes through an isenthalpic process in the expansion device,
which causes it to change into a two-phase fluid that has a temperature
that is lower than the previous state (2 - 3). After the absorption of the
heat load, the two-phase fluid proceeds to evaporate (3 - 4). Subse­
quently, the fluid that has been kept at a low temperature and pressure is
cycled back through the recuperator, where it exchanges its cold ca­
pacity for high-pressure working medium (4 - 5) [58].
Numerous methodologies have been explored in the existing litera­
ture to optimize and broaden the scope of the expansion cooling cycle,
with the aim of improving its efficiency and feasibility. In order to
validate the potential improvement of the cycle, various components
including air compressors, heat exchangers, and throttling valves were
subjected to experimental design and analysis in the existing literature.
In addition, the selection of the working fluid plays a crucial role in
determining the overall efficiency and environmental impact of the
cycle. Accordingly, it has been found that the expansion cooling cycle
remains a notable and potentially advantageous technology for various
Fig. 4. Gas expansion cycle vs. vapor compression cycle T-S diagram. applications that require cooling at low temperatures [58–62].
Expansion cooling is a commonly employed technique in HVAC
systems. Its widespread adoption can be attributed to its intuitive
configuration and design, which in turn facilitates convenient mainte­
nance procedures. This advantage sets it apart from alternative cooling
systems. Furthermore, it is worth noting that when examining the AC
aspect, there exist three main compartments dedicated to expansion
cooling in central air conditioning systems, as illustrated in Fig. 6 [63].
The compressor and the condenser are both located in the first division,
which is referred to as the Plant Room. The classification of compressors
can be based on the type of cooling agent used, distinguishing between
semi-hermetically sealed compressors and open compressors. The clas­
sification of compressors can also based on their cooling methods which
include water-cooled (Open) compressors and air-cooled compressors
(semi-hermetically sealed compressors). The condenser is typically
cooled using a shell and tube heat exchanger, where water is circulated
to remove heat from the condenser. In the course of the cooling process,
thermal energy is transferred from the circulating refrigerant within the
tube to the water enclosed within the shell. Following the cooling pro­
cess within a cooling tower, the water is subsequently returned to the
heat exchanger for further utilization. The second division includes the
Air Handling Unit (AHU) room, which contains essential components
such as an evaporator coil, fan, air filter, fresh air duct, and return air
duct originating from the air-conditioned room. In this room, the cooled
refrigerant is introduced from the heat exchanger via a thermostatic
expansion valve. In accordance with established practices, the air within
the AHU undergoes a process in which it passes through the evaporator
coil. During this phase, heat is transferred to the coil, resulting in the
refrigerant expanding within the evaporator coil. Subsequently, heat is
Fig. 5. Joule-Thomson cryocooler’s typical operating schematic [58]. (With transferred from the air to the coil, resulting in the rejection of thermal
Permission, License Number: 5514970625187). energy. Finally, the refrigerant within the system is allowed to expand as
it passes through the evaporator coil. The Third division is the
conditioning systems, cryogenic applications, and gas liquefaction [57]. air-conditioned room, which is the desired space to-be-cooled [63].
In addition to its application in residential settings, expansion cool­
ing is also put to work in a variety of industrial settings, including the
3.1. Operation and practical applications cooling of power plants. In these operations, the application of expan­
sion cooling may enhance energy efficiency and minimize the need for
The temperature-entropy (T-S) diagram comparing between expan­ the utilization of mechanical cooling systems. Cooling the air or water
sion cooling and vapor compression refrigeration cycles is shown in that is utilized in power plants via the process of expansion may improve
Fig. 4. the overall efficiency of the power production process. This can be
Fig. 5. depicts the fundamental components of a Joule-Thomson accomplished by using expansion cooling. When used in power plants,
cryocooler. A gas cylinder, an expansion device, and an evaporator are expansion cooling has the potential to reduce the quantity of water and
the components that make up a Joule-Thomson cryocooler. Moreover, energy required for cooling while simultaneously increasing the plant’s
there is a recuperator that is helically coiled on a counter-flow heat overall production of electrical power. Utilizing expansion cooling in
exchanger. The gas cylinder is used to hold the working medium (argon combination with renewable energy sources like solar power has drawn

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Fig. 6. Central air conditioning - expansion cooling system [63]. (Open Access).

By utilizing solar PV modules for both power generation and heat pump
Table 5
operation, this expansion cooling system presented an innovative
Benefits and technology adaption to expansion cooling system.
approach to address energy scarcity and environmental pollution con­
Technology Adapted Benefits Refrigerant COP Refs. cerns. The results indicate that during the summer, the system generated
to Expansion Cooling
more electricity than needed, offering potential opportunities for surplus
system
electricity usage, further enhancing energy efficiency. Moreover, a study
Solar collector 25% to 42% monthly R410A 3.2 - [67] focused on a two-stage expansion cooling system with a subcooled
mounted to the energy saving 5.45
condenser of
liquid-to-air reheating coil and exhaust air heat recovery was presented
expansion cooling in [69]. The researchers found that this system outperformed conven­
system tional cooling systems, exhibiting an efficiency increase of 26%. By
Two-stage expansion 26% more efficient R410A 5.42 [69] utilizing R410A refrigerant and achieving a COP of 5.42, the two-stage
cooling system with than conventional
expansion cooling system provided enhanced cooling and dehumidifi­
subcooled liquid-to- systems
air reheating coil and cation capabilities while recovering energy from exhaust air.
exhaust air heat Reducing the surface area ratio for the cooling coils in a two-
recovery sectioned evaporator expansion cooling system was investigated [70].
Coil for out-door The study demonstrated that decreasing the cooling coils’ surface area
cooling
Reduction in surface Increase in variation R410A – [70]
ratio resulted in a notable increase in the variation range of both the
area ratio (Rs) for the range of the output output total cooling load (33%) and equipment sensible heat ratio
cooling coils in two- total cooling load & (51%). A study focused on optimizing a ground-coupled heat pump
sectioned evaporator equipment sensible (CGHP) system, which also falls under the umbrella of expansion cooling
expansion cooling heat ratio by 33% &
systems [71]. Through numerical modeling and optimization, the re­
system 51% respectively
A numerical model An optimized CGHP – 2.58 [71] searchers were able to achieve significant improvements in the CGHP
optimization of increased COP & system’s performance. The optimized CGHP system exhibited an 18%
CGHP system heating capacity by increase in COP facilitating an increase of 17% in heating capacity
including physical 18% & 17% compared to the baseline system. The details and findings are presented
and thermal respectively over the
parameters. baseline system.
in Table 5 to provide a deeper understanding of the specific benefits and
Integrating solar PV Total efficiency of R134A 5.9 [68] refrigerants used in each study, supporting the broader push for
modules to serve as 111% in summer energy-efficient and environmentally friendly cooling technologies
an evaporator of the compared to 86% in based on expansion cooling.
direct-expansion winter.
roof-PV/T heat
pump system. 3.2. Advantages, limitations, and feasibility

more attention in recent years. The use of the extra heat produced by Expansion cooling systems offer precise cooling in a wide range of
solar panels to fuel the adiabatic cooling process is referred to as solar- load conditions and offer an excellent degree of flexibility. The system
assisted adiabatic cooling [64–66], and it may help enhance the effi­ can be installed either inside or outside the structure, and it has the
ciency of cooling systems by utilizing the heat provided by solar panels flexibility to be expanded to meet new construction requirements or size
in excess. needs. The adjustable flow control of the expansion cooling valve can
Several studies have been conducted to explore the benefits of slow down or completely stop the flow of refrigerant to each interior
various technologies adapted to expansion cooling systems. One such unit. As a result, each part can be managed separately. Expansion
study investigated the integration of a solar collector mounted to the cooling systems, such as In-Row systems, have the advantage of occu­
condenser of an expansion cooling system that utilizes R410A refrig­ pying less space compared to traditional cooling systems. When there is
erant [67]. This innovative approach allowed for substantial monthly a high demand for air conditioning, it is common to install multiple units
energy savings, with energy costs reduced by 25% to 42%, making in close proximity to each other. To effectively handle situations with
expansion cooling more viable, environmentally friendly, and econom­ different loads, it is possible to deactivate one unit while allowing the
ically feasible. Additionally, researchers explored the integration of other to operate at maximum power when there is less demand for heat
solar photovoltaic (PV) modules to serve as an evaporator in a [72]. When comparing chillers to expansion cooling systems, it is
direct-expansion roof-PV/T heat pump system [68]. The system apparent that the latter exhibit significant benefits. For example, in
demonstrated a total efficiency of 111% during summer, compared to expansion cooling systems, the refrigerant travels relatively short dis­
86% in winter, utilizing R134A refrigerant and achieving a COP of 5.9. tances from the expansion valve to the evaporator. As a result, it is able
to absorb a small amount of heat from the surrounding environment and

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

experience lower levels of fluid friction losses. In contrast to the water refrigerants contain less chlorine than CFCs, thus they have a lower ODP
present in chillers, the water in cooling towers passes through greater [75,76] and are planned to be banned by 2030. R22, R123, and R124 are
distances within the building, thereby facilitating increased heat ab­ examples of HCFCs. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) are chlorine-free re­
sorption from the surrounding environment. Moreover, the inclusion of frigerants that have no negative effect on the ozone layer. However, as
an additional water pump will contribute to the overall increase in heat compared to typical refrigerants, their influence on global warming is
gain within the water. Furthermore, within expansion cooling systems, significant. R32, R125, R134a, R245ca, R245fa, R404A, R407C, R410A,
the refrigerant exclusively serves as the cooling medium, facilitating the R507A, and R508B are all common examples of HFCs [77–79]. Because
removal of heat from the condenser subsequent to its absorption by the fluorocarbons (FC) refrigerants do not include chlorine, they do not
evaporator. In the context of chillers, the cooling process involves the contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer. However, they are
utilization of refrigerant to lower the temperature of water, which is exceptionally stable and have a high GWP [75,80,81], which is a mea­
then employed as a medium for cooling the surrounding air. The effi­ sure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere relative
ciency decrease is attributed to the losses incurred during the two-stage to carbon dioxide over a given time horizon. R218 is a fluorocarbon, and
heat transfer process, specifically from the transfer of heat between fluorocarbons may also be found in mixtures of R403 and R408. The use
water and refrigerant, as well as from air to water. In order to of hydrocarbons (HC) is one approach to diminish the problem of
compensate for these inefficiencies, chillers necessitate a greater amount environmental damage caused by refrigerants. In spite of the fact that
of power to attain comparable output levels as an expansion cooling they do not deplete the ozone layer and do not directly contribute to the
system [73]. production of greenhouse gasses, they are highly combustible. The use
The refrigerants used in expansion cooling systems circulate of HCs as refrigerants is mostly restricted to Europe due to the fact that
throughout the entire system and are significantly influenced by pres­ the majority of nations have made it illegal to carry combustible gas in
sure drop. Consequently, it is necessary to minimize the distance be­ public. Since between the years 1840 and 1860, ammonia (NH3), also
tween the AHU and the condenser to mitigate this effect. The importance known as R717, has been used in refrigeration systems and vapor
of this effect is increased when the air handling unit is positioned at an compression cycles. In light of its many great characteristics, it deserves
elevated height relative to the condenser. The inclusion of multiple to be categorized as a premium refrigerant. Even in little amounts,
AHUs or the utilization of compressors with higher capacities contrib­ ammonia is particularly hazardous due to the fact that its odor is
utes to the initial expenses and overall power consumption, resulting in generally enough to cause anxiety. This is the fundamental reason why
reduced efficiency. The resolution of this matter is achieved in chillers, applications requiring the use of ammonia by individuals who are not
as they utilize a liquid refrigerant that necessitates the use of water trained have been eliminated, and it is now largely employed in appli­
pumps. These pumps are advantageous due to their lower initial and cations requiring industrial usage. In comparison to other refrigerants,
operational costs. Chillers are a more beneficial choice for buildings ammonia has a lower price, greater COPs, and a GWP and ODP value of
with multiple floors and a high cooling load capacity [73]. In terms of zero. CO2, also known as R744, has a number of desirable qualities,
COP, chillers demonstrate a marginal advantage with a COP range of 2.8 including the fact that it is not combustible, does not contribute to ozone
to 6, in contrast to a COP range of 2.5 to 4 exhibited by expansion depletion has a very low toxicity index it is plentiful, and it is
cooling systems. The lower COP can primarily be attributed to the effects economically feasible. On the other hand, it has a poor efficiency and a
of refrigerant leakage and pressure drop. high pressure while operation (approximately 10 times higher than
The refrigerant piping should be minimized in length due to the R134a) are the major drawbacks in its utilization [75,82].
pressure drop phenomenon. This will put constraints on the placement Leakage of refrigerant from a variety of systems is a significant issue
and proximity of the AHU in relation to both the cooled space and the on a worldwide scale. Due to the the hazardous impact that refrigerants
plant room. Additionally, the installation of longer piping necessitates a have on the environment and the fact that they are flammable.
greater quantity of refrigerant, resulting in increased maintenance ex­ Approximately 42.21 kt of refrigerant leakage, or 147.74 MtCO2 of their
penses, cooling inefficiencies, and an increased risk of refrigerant total GHG emissions, were detected in European nations [83,84].
leakage. The adaptability of central expansion cooling systems for The process of replacing conventional refrigerants is challenging
cooling loads of up to 15 tons in small buildings or a limited number of since the only “natural” alternatives that are now available are NH3, HC,
rooms on a single level is constrained by these restrictions. To meet and CO2. The most significant issues associated with these chemicals are
increased demands, it is possible to install and operate multiple central their high pressures (CO2), flammability (HC), and toxicity (NH3). In
expansion cooling systems simultaneously in order to provide the spite of this, when handled properly and in accordance with safety re­
necessary capacity for cooling. It has been observed that expansion quirements, their hazardous effects are attenuated [85].
cooling systems exhibit higher efficiency levels when operating at full Nevertheless, recent research has analyzed several refrigerants, such
loads. Consequently, in scenarios where multiple central expansion as R290 that provide a preferable alternative choice because to its high
cooling systems are employed, it is possible to enhance the overall sys­ performance, decreased mass charge, low generation temperature, and
tem efficiency by shutting down certain systems and allowing one or two lack of metal corrosion [86]. The benefit of R290′s low global warming
systems to supply the load when the total demand is low [63]. and minimal ozone depletion offsets its high flammability [86]. In
addition, R1234yf is another option that has comparable benefits and is
3.3. Environmental and sustainable impact less flammable, has no ODP, and has a minimal GWP that is lower than
R290. R1234yf, a natural refrigerant, has been identified as a viable
In conjunction with the challenges encountered by expansion cooling alternative to all others. Where flammability is an issue, one can utilize
systems, there exist important environmental issues associated with the R1234yf instead of R290 even though it provides lower performance
refrigeration gasses employed in these processes across different appli­ than R290 [87].
cations. Investigations have provided evidence that a considerable
number of refrigerants possess significant Global Warming Potential 3.4. Retrofitting of existing systems
(GWP) and have the potential to contribute to Ozone Depletion Potential
(ODP), thereby causing negative impacts on the environment [74]. Existing literature has many examples of augmenting existing cool­
Refrigerants play a crucial role in the sustainability and environ­ ing equipment with either newer components or replacing them alto­
mental impact of cooling systems. Chlorine-containing refrigerants gether with a more advanced version. Upgrading a chiller in a cooling
(CFC) also known as Chlorofluorocarbons, have been prohibited since power plant involves installing new high-efficiency chillers, variable
the early 1990s due to their hazardous impact on the environment. CFCs frequency drives, and controls into an already-existing chiller plant in a
include R11, R12, and R115. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) commercial building. Because of such updates, energy usage would drop

8
A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Fig. 7. Nitrogen Pipe Surface and Water Temperature Profiles - [104] (With Permission, License Number: 5601290057926).

by as much as 30%, and considerable savings can be realized in terms of power grid [101]. As the world seeks to reduce carbon emissions and
maintenance expenses [88–90]. Another important example pertinent to mitigate climate change, CAES emerges as a promising and versatile
district cooling retrofitting is the replacement of a cooling tower with a technology that complements other energy storage solutions in
more efficient and cost effective one. Many examples in literature advancing a sustainable and resilient energy landscape. The thermal
examine how rebuilt towers can improve cooling system efficiency while classifications of CAES systems as well as their practical applications are
lowering water and power consumptions [91–94]. Another route is via discussed in the following sections. CAES systems are classified ac­
upgrading evaporator coils of an existing system and thus directly cording to the type of thermal management that is implemented when
contributing to immediate efficiency enhancement and energy conser­ the system is in operation as well as the temperature of the working fluid
vation [95,96]. Also, the incorporation of thermal energy storage sys­ (air) that is experienced throughout the compression and expansion
tems helps with demand peak shaving which reflects on temporal energy processes [102]. Consequently, CAES can be categorized into three
efficiency gains [97–99]. It is essential to keep in mind that projects primary classifications: Diabatic (D-CAES), Adiabatic (A-CAES), and
involving retrofitting have to be addressed with a life cycle cost analysis Isothermal (I-CAES).
so as to guarantee that the expenses of the project are covered by the CAES on a large scale might be used with expansion cooling systems
savings that it creates over the period of time. to provide a cleaner and more efficient cooling method. The process of
cooling water or other cooling fluids by expansion utilizes pressurized
3.5. Expansion cooling associated with CAES systems gas, usually air or nitrogen. Expansion cooling systems may also benefit
from this sustainable and dependable supply of compressed air. A po­
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems are innovative en­ tential barrier in the integration of large-scale CAES with expansion
ergy storage solutions that play a crucial role in the transition to a sus­ cooling systems is the necessity to balance the output of the CAES system
tainable energy future. These systems store surplus electricity generated with the demand of the cooling system. The CAES system must be
during periods of low demand by converting it into compressed air, flexible enough to adapt rapidly to variations in cooling demand brought
which is then stored in underground caverns, depleted natural gas res­ on by the day of the week or the season. When the CAES system’s
ervoirs, or above-ground pressure vessels [100]. When electricity de­ functioning is optimized and matched with the demand of the cooling
mand rises or renewable energy sources face fluctuations, the stored system, this problem is mitigated [103].
compressed air is released, powering turbines to generate electricity A study [104] investigated the potential employment of CAES system
once again. The ability of CAES to provide grid stability, its relatively for cooling purposes, as the expanded air resulting from the compression
long storage duration, and its compatibility with renewable energy stage is utilized for expansion cooling. The outlet pipe of the CAES
sources make it an essential tool for optimizing the utilization of clean system is submerged in water and connected to an air motor. Moreover,
energy and supporting the integration of variable renewables into the temperature thermocouples are fitted at various point to measure the

Fig. 8. CAES Experimental Setup used in [105]. (Open Access).

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Fig. 9. (a) Temperature profile of nitrogen with (black) and without (red) thermal management in the form of a water bath (b) Water temperature profiles within the
loops, surface, and center [105].

exchanger, the temperature of the expanded air can reach as low as − 25

◦
C, which has the potential to produce chilled water, as shown in Fig. 9
(a). Contrary to that, the addition of a heat exchanger, sets a lower limit
to the expanded air at − 5 C, can positively affect the performance of the
○

CAES system. Fig. 9(b), shows the temperature variation of the produced
chilled water with time. Chilled water runs through a series of 4 looped
pipes. It can be seen that there is a notable difference between the water
at the surface of the used tank (~18 C), and the chilled water running in
○

the loops, which ranges from 17 C down to 10 C. Moreover Fig. 10.,

○ ○

highlights the effect of the added heat exchanger on the power perfor­
mance of the CAES system, where it can sustain a higher power output
throughout the experimental run.
Therefore, there is a potential that combining large-scale CAES with
expansion cooling systems would result in a more sustainable and effi­
cient cooling solution that may also contribute to grid stability.
Although, further studies and experimentations are required to optimize
the combination of these systems and find solutions to any technological
difficulties that may occur.
One of the drawbacks of diabatic compression in CAES systems is the
associated heat generated, which is expected to decrease system effi­
ciency. However, recovering the heat generated serves three benefits; (i)
Fig. 10. Error analysis of power run of the compressed air system with (red)
increases the round-trip-efficiency of the system (ii) allows better lower
and without (blue) thermal management [105].
temperature drop during decompression, as well as (iii) using the waste
heat generated in other suitable applications.
temperature of the nitrogen gas and chilled water. Fig. 7. highlights the The extracted heat from the compression process in CAES systems
temperature difference between the inlet (directly after the nitrogen can be made useful by utilizing it in technologies such as absorption
tank), and the outlet (directly after the air motor) pipes, as well as the chillers and organic Rankine power generation cycles. This utilization
temperature profile of the to-be-chilled water. A temperature difference allows for enhancing the efficiency of CAES systems, producing what
of 14 C between the inlet and the outlet was recorded. Moreover, a
○

could be a wasted cooling effect, and extra power generation. Absorp­

water temperature drop of 9.64 C was attained. These results showcase
○

tion chillers are cooling systems that can make use of that waste heat,
the true potential of producing chilled water through the expansion which is the primary input to absorption chillers, to drive an absorption
process associated with CAES systems. refrigeration cycle that can be used for AC and refrigeration applications
An imporoved system designed by Alami et al. [105] investigated the [106]. Moreover, Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs) can further benefit
performance of a CAES system utilized for potential cooling with the from the extracted heat by converting it into mechanical work and
addition of thermal management. Fig. 8 shows the experimental setup of subsequently into electricity, which in retrospect would improve the
the CAES system with the expansion cooling ancillary system, which round-trip-efficiency of CAES systems [107].
includes telemetric sensors for monitoring temperature fluctuation and Ding et al. [108] proposed a model, where a CAES system is inte­
determining cooling capacity. grated with ORCs and single effect absorption chillers, which was
During the expansion process of CAES, there is a temperature drop simulated using Aspen Plus software. In this study, the heat produced
experienced by the expanding air as highlighted in the previous section during the compression stage was utilized in an ORC to generate elec­
and shown in Fig. 9. Without proper thermal management using heat tricity. Moreover, the expanded air, during the discharge process, was

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of a CAES system integrated with ORCs and absorption chillers [106] (With Permission, License Number: 5602620236277).

driven through a combustion chamber, and subsequently turned into a 4. Conclusion and future outlook
hot flue gas that is used to drive a power generating turbine. However,
the expanded air coming out of the turbine still maintains a large In conclusion, this paper provided a comprehensive overview of
amount of heat, which was further used to power another ORC, and various cooling technologies, analyzing their economic viability, envi­
absorption chiller to generate cooling energy [106]. This novel inte­ ronmental impact, and energy usage. Particularly, expansion cooling, a
gration showcased a 12.35% improvement in the round-trip-efficiency process that harnesses the cooling effect during gas expansion. Addi­
and introduced a 0.2 MW of cooling capacity. A schematic diagram tionally, this cooling effect can be utilized for air conditioning purposes,
showing the integration of CAES, ORCs, and absorption chillers is thereby reducing the electrical demand typically associated with cool­
illustrated in Fig. 11. ing. This concept proves particularly advantageous in hot climates
Bai et al. [109] developed a mathematical model to study the po­ where a significant portion of electricity consumption is dedicated to
tential of hybridizing Advanced Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy offsetting cooling loads. The interest in this cooling technology arises
Storage (AA-CAES) systems with dual-effect compressed absorption from its integration with large-scale energy storage technologies such as
refrigeration, to make up a cold power cogeneration. This allows the compressed air energy storage systems. Proper thermal management of
system to utilize the excess cooling effect generated by the AA-CAES the expansion process enhances the efficiency of energy storage.
expansion stage as well as the heat generated during the compression The adoption of technologies that are both more effective and
stage. This led to a 14.97% improvement achieved over the sole environmentally friendly, such as thermal energy storage systems, is
AA-CAES system. Jiang et al. [110] performed a similar study, where the expected to be a significant development in the field of cooling systems
flue gasses from the turbine discharge are used as the feed for in the years to come. Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind,
Lithium-Bromide (LiBr) absorption chiller in a Combined Cooling, are increasingly being used to power cooling systems, which has the
Heating and Power (CCHP)-CAES system that showed favorable results added benefit of lowering both carbon emissions and energy costs. There
to conventional CCHP systems. Additionally, Soltani et al. [111] pre­ is a growing expectation that smart technology will play an ever-
sented feasible solutions to utilize the waste heat from CAES systems increasing role in the development of HVAC systems. Cooling systems
using ORC, where and ORC using R290 as the working fluid recovered may benefit from the integration of smart sensors and control systems
the highest amount of heat (in comparison to R717, R1270, R290, and that offer real-time feedback on energy usage and performance, as well
R123yf), and improved the production capacity by 2.47%. The inte­ as optimize operation based on occupancy patterns and weather con­
gration of a small-scale ORC into the compression unit in a subcooled ditions. This has the potential to enhance efficiency and cut down on
CAES (SCAES) system has been done by Alsagri et al. [112] in order to energy waste. Hybrid systems, which combine the best features of
use the heat generated during the compression of airflow to provide a multiple cooling methods, are another emerging trend. Integration of
part of the work needed by the compressors, thus improving the system’s thermal energy storage systems with, say, geothermal heating and
power-to-power efficiency. As a reduced temperature heat source, the cooling systems, may result in a more efficient and sustainable approach
ORC’s condenser has been coupled to the district heating return line at a to both heating and cooling.
temperature of 40 ◦ C. The pressurized water exits the ORC condenser at
80 ◦ C, which is the typical supply temperature of the present district Declaration of Competing Interest
heating systems. A system consisting of a SCAES with a large-scale
solar-powered absorption chiller (SPAC) has been proposed by Ara­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
bkoohsar and Andresen [113]. In this hybrid system, the storage system interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
can supply all or part of the chiller’s necessary heat during the charging the work reported in this paper.
process and a significant part of the cooling demand during the dis­
charging stage. As a result, the chiller’s cooling work during discharging Data availability
of the storage unit is significantly reduced.
Data will be made available on request.

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A.H. Alami et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 20 (2023) 100437

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