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Laboratory Report
Signals and systems
Lab. No. 2

Operations With Analog Signals

S. Mendieta1
1
Escuela de Ingeniería Electrónica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia
Tunja, Colombia.

[Link]@[Link]
Abstract –- This study explores fundamental electronic circuits An astable multivibrator is an oscillator circuit that does not
for signal generation and transformation, focusing on the 555 timer require an external input for operation. It uses a 555 timer circuit,
in astable mode and operational amplifiers in integrator which constantly alternates between its high and low states, generating
configurations. The 555 timer produces a stable square wave signal, a square signal.
while cascaded integrators convert it into triangular and sinusoidal
The oscillation frequency in an astable multivibrator is determined
waveforms. Key considerations include waveform analysis using an
by the ratio of the resistors to the capacitor in the circuit, given by the
oscilloscope and minimizing parasitic capacitance for signal
equation:
integrity. These concepts are essential for applications in signal
processing, telecommunications, and automation. 1.44
𝑓=
(𝑅1 + 2𝑅2)𝐶

Keywords –- Astable Multivibrator, Integrator Circuit, 555 The duty cycle is adjusted according to the values of 𝑅1, 𝑅2 and
C, allowing control of the ratio between the high and low time of the
Timer, Operational Amplifiers, Waveform Generation
signal.
Operational amplifiers can be configured as integrators to
I. OBJECTIVES transform square signals into triangular signals and then into sine
signals. An ideal integrator based on an operational amplifier is
● Use specialized engineering E-Cad (Electronic Computer
represented by the following equation:
Aided Design) software tools such as Matlab, Orcad
Cadence for signal and system analysis, using engineering 1
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = − ∫ 𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑑𝑡
software such as Matlab, Orcad Cadence for the analysis of 𝑅𝐶
signals and systems, by means of the development of This circuit converts a square-wave input into a triangular-wave
specific exercises in the laboratory. output. When two integrators are cascaded together, a sine-wave signal
● To implement circuits that allow the generation of is obtained from a square-wave signal.
conventional signals taking into account design
Integrator circuits, in particular, make it possible to convert a
specifications. square signal into a triangular signal by accumulating charge on a
● Perform temporal and frequency analysis of output signals capacitor. If this triangular signal is again integrated, a sine waveform
of the circuits implemented in the laboratory. is obtained. These processes are essential in signal conversion and in
generating smoother waveforms from digital signals.

II. INTRODUCTION An important aspect of circuit design and construction is the

reduction of parasitic capacitance, which can affect system
The design and analysis of electronic circuits are fundamental in performance by introducing delays and distortion into signals. Proper
engineering, as they allow the generation, processing and component layout, the use of short connections and the selection of
transformation of electrical signals. In this practical, various concepts appropriate materials help to minimise these unwanted effects.
related to astable multivibrator circuits, operational amplifiers in
integrator configurations, and generation of triangular and sine-wave Together, these concepts provide insight into the operation of
signals from a square wave were explored. This knowledge is electronic systems essential for signal generation, transformation and
analysis, with applications in telecommunications, instrumentation and
essential for the implementation of oscillators and signal generation automation.
systems in industrial and communication applications.
 III. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 𝑉𝐹𝑈𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐸 = 5𝑉

● Matlab simulation software with simulink Toolbox.

𝜏 = 1.5
● Orcad Cadence simulation software. 𝑡

● Computer. 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐹𝑈𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 )

● Various integrated circuits (NE555, TL082, LM741, 𝑡
LM324, etc). 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 5(1 − 𝑒 −1.5 )
● Passive elements (resistors, ceramic and electrolytic
𝑡 = 𝜏 = 1.5 𝑠
capacitors, trimmers of different values)
● Oscilloscope. 𝑉𝐶 (1.5) = 5((1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 5(1 − 0.3679 =
● DC power supply. 5(0.632) = 3.16𝑉
● Multimeter.
● Wires coarse alligators. 𝑡 = 3𝜏 = 4.5 𝑠
● Wires.
𝑉𝐶 (4.5) = 5((1 − 𝑒 −3 ) = 5(1 − 0.0498 =
5(0.9502) = 4.75𝑉

IV. PRACTICE DEVELOPMENT 𝑡 = 5𝜏 = 7.5 𝑠

𝑉𝐶 (7.5) = 5((1 − 𝑒 −5 ) = 5(1 − 0.0067 =
5(0.9933) = 4.97𝑉
6+3+5
3 4.66 4.97𝑉 → 99.3% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑛 = (1 + ) = (1 + ) = 1.46
10 10

For download:
1. Check the charging and discharging of an RC circuit
of τ=1.5 s, comparing the signal obtained on the
oscilloscope with the theoretical one according to the −𝑡
values of R and C used. 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐼𝑁𝐼𝐶𝐼𝐴𝐿 𝑒 − 𝜏
−𝑡
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 5𝑒 −1.5
𝑡 = 𝜏 = 1.5 𝑠
𝑉𝐶 (1.5) = 5𝑒 −1 = 5(0.3679) = 1.84𝑉
𝑡 = 3𝜏 = 4.5 𝑠
𝑉𝐶 (4.5) = 5𝑒 −3 = 5(0.0498) = 0.25𝑉
𝑡 = 5𝜏 = 7.5 𝑠
𝑉𝐶 (7.5) = 5𝑒 −5 = 5(0.0067) = 0.03𝑉

Image 1. RC circuit. Own elaboration.

The time constant in an RC circuit is given by:

τ =R⋅C
It assumes a capacitor of 100uF, so, w clear 𝑅
𝐶
R= 𝜏

1.5 𝑠 1.5
𝑅= = = 15000𝛺 = 15𝐾𝛺
100 ∗ 10−6 𝐹 0.0001
In order to get 𝜏 = 1.5 should be used 𝐶 =
100𝑢𝐹 and 𝑅 = 15𝐾𝛺 Image 2. RC circuit charge time. Own elaboration.
For charge:
 Image 3. RC circuit charge. Own elaboration.
Image 5. RCL circuit. Own elaboration.

TIME (s) CHARGE DOWNLOAD 𝑓𝑛 = 1.5𝑘𝐻𝑧

1
1.5 3.16 1.84 𝑓𝑛 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
4.5 4.75 0.25 𝑓𝑛 = 1.5𝐾ℎ𝑧
7.5 4.97 0.03 𝐿 = 220𝜇𝐻
1
𝐶= 2
(2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓𝑛 ) ∗𝐿
1
𝐶= 2
(2𝜋 ∗ 1.5𝐾) ∗ 220𝜇𝐻
𝐶 = 51.17𝜇𝐹 ≈ 47𝜇𝐹

1
𝑓𝑛 =
2𝜋√(220 ∗ 10−6 )(47 ∗ 10−6 )
𝑓𝑛 = 1.565 𝐾𝐻𝑧
Image 4. Bode plot. Own elaboration.

𝜔𝑛 ∗ 𝐿
𝑄=
2. Design and implement a series RLC circuit at fn= 1.5 𝑅
kHz, sweep a sine wave using the signal generator and 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓𝑛 ∗ 𝐿
𝑄=
displayed on the oscilloscope, and take output 𝑅
amplitude values over R and compare them with those
2𝜋 ∗ (1500) ∗ (220 ∗ 10−6 )
obtained in simulation, determine B and Q 𝑄=
theoretically and experimentally. 7.5𝛺
𝑄 = 0.276

𝑓𝑛
𝛽=
𝑄
1500
𝛽=
0.276
𝛽 = 5434.8 𝐻𝑧
 Image 9. 555 IC circuit. Own elaboration.
Image 6. RCL circuit measurements. Own elaboration.
The 555 integrated circuit has an internal comparator that
controls the capacitor voltage:

2
● When the voltage at 𝐶 reaches 3 of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 the capacitor
begins to discharge.
1
● When the voltage at 𝐶 drops to of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 the capacitor
3
starts to charge again.
The oscillation between these values is what generates the
square signal.
This means:
2 −𝑇𝐶
Image 7. RCL circuit measurements. Own elaboration.
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (1 − 𝑒 (𝑅1+𝑅2 )𝐶 )
3
2 −𝑇𝐶
= (1 − 𝑒 (𝑅1+𝑅2 )𝐶 )
3
Clearing 𝑇𝐶
−𝑇𝐶 2 1
𝑒 (𝑅1+𝑅2)𝐶 = 1 − =
3 3
−𝑇𝐶 1
= 𝑙𝑛( )
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐶 3
1
𝑇𝐶 = −(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑙𝑛( )
3
Image 8. Bode plot. Own elaboration.
𝑇𝐶 = −(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) ∗ 𝐶 ∗ −1.0986
During discharge, the capacitor is discharged only through
3. Using operational amplifier circuits and 555 ICs, 𝑅2 following the equation:
design, simulate (using Orcad) and implement a circuit
in astable multivibrator mode that generates a square
waveform at a working frequency of 1.5 khz, and a 𝑡
duty cycle of 50% and amplitude +- 2.5V, where n 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
square waveform at a working frequency of 1.5 Khz, 1 𝑡
− 𝐷
and duty cycle of 50% and amplitude +- 2.5V, where 𝑉𝐶𝑐 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑒 𝑅2𝐶
3
is assigned to each working group. The calculation 𝑡
1 − 𝐷
memories and the respective oscilloscope observations = 𝑒 𝑅2 𝐶
must be attached. 3
𝑡 𝑇𝑑 1
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐹𝑈𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ) − = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = −0.693
𝑅2 𝐶 3
 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 + 𝑇𝑑 = 1.0986(𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 )𝐶 𝑅𝑓 = 8 ∗ 𝑅𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑐
1 1 1
𝑓 = 𝑇 = 0.693 = 1.44
𝑅𝑖 =
4 ∗ 1500 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 2.5
𝑅𝑖 = 6.67𝐾𝛺
𝑓 = 1.5𝐾𝐻𝑧
𝑅𝑓 = 8 ∗ 6.67𝐾𝛺 ∗ 2.5
3
1.44
1.5 ∗ 10 = 𝑅𝑓 = 133.3𝐾𝛺
(𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 )𝐶
1.44
𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 =
(1.5 ∗ 103 ∗ 𝐶) SECOND INTEGRATOR:
Chosen a capacitor of 47nF:
1.44 1
𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑖 =
(1.5 ∗ 103 ∗ 𝐶) 8𝑓𝐶𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑥
𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 ≈ 20.41𝐾𝛺 𝑅𝑓 = 16 ∗ 𝑅𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑐
20.41 1
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = ≈ 6.8𝐾𝛺 𝑅𝑖 =
3 8 ∗ 1500 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 2.5
𝑅𝑖 = 3.33𝐾𝛺
𝑅𝑓 = 16 ∗ 3.33𝐾𝛺 ∗ 2.5
𝑅𝑓 = 133.3𝐾𝛺

Image 10. 555 IC measurements. Own elaboration.

Image 12. Integrators in cascade. Own elaboration.

Image 11. Bode plot. Own elaboration.

4. Use operational amplifiers to implement the integrator

circuits to obtain from the square output of the CI555
triangular and sine signals for Vp=(1+1.5)V. ( must
implement two integrators in cascade)

FIRST INTEGRATOR:
1
𝑅𝑖 =
4𝑓𝐶𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑥 Image 13. Integrators in cascade triangular. Own elaboration.
 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 (𝑠) −1
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝑉𝐼𝑁 (𝑠) 𝑠𝑅𝑖 𝐶

−1
𝐻1(𝑠) =
𝑠(6.8𝐾𝛺)(10𝑛𝐹)
1
𝐻1(𝑠) =
𝑠(68𝜇𝑠)

Image 14. Integrators in cascade square. Own elaboration.

−1
𝐻2(𝑠) =
𝑠(3.3𝐾𝛺)(10𝑛𝐹)
1
𝐻2(𝑠) =
𝑠(33𝜇𝑠)

ASYMPTOTIC FREQUENCY RESPONSE

1
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| =
𝜔𝑅𝑖 𝐶
20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = −20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝜔) − 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑅𝑖 𝐶)
1
𝑓𝐶1 =
2𝜋(6.8𝐾𝛺)(10𝑛𝐹)
𝑓𝐶1 = 2.34𝐾𝐻𝑧

1
𝑓𝐶2 =
2𝜋(3.3𝐾𝛺)(10𝑛𝐹)
𝑓𝐶2 = 4.83𝐾𝐻𝑧

Image 15. Integrators in cascade. Own elaboration. Breaking down the transfer function

1
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
1
𝜔𝐶 = → 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓
𝑅𝐶
𝐻𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑠) = 𝐻1 (𝑠) ∗ 𝐻2 (𝑠)
1
=
Image 16. Bode plot. Own elaboration. (𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1)(𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1)
𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝐻(𝑗𝜔)|
5. Obtain for each case the transfer functions and
asymptotic frequency response (manual bode plot and
exact (Matlab or similar) and contrast the results with
those obtained for each circuit output. Try to infer why
they fulfil their function.
 and sine waves using operational integrators is ideally
observed, with sharp transitions and no distortion. In the
implemented circuit, attenuation, noise and signal
distortion can occur due to effects such as parasitic
capacitance and junction impedance.
The rounded edges are observed in the square signal, this
may be due to a slow response of the circuit or the
presence of parasitic capacitance in the physical
assembly. In addition, the triangular and sinusoidal
signals may exhibit amplitude deviations or asymmetries
due to differences in operational amplifier gain and power
supply stability.
Image 17. Manual Bode Plot. Own elaboration.

The expected frequency of the circuit was 1.5 kHz with a

duty cycle of 50%. In the simulation, these values are
accurate, as the software does not consider tolerances in
the components. However, in the real circuit, the
frequency can deviate slightly due to resistor and
capacitor tolerances, which can vary between 5% and
10% from their nominal value.
The measured frequency on the oscilloscope is higher or
lower than expected, this indicates that the components
Image 18. Manual Bode Plot. Own elaboration.
have small variations or that there are losses in the circuit.
To correct for this, precision resistors and capacitors and
a trimmer were used to adjust the resistance and calibrate
the frequency.

In the simulation, the output signal amplitude of the 555

IC is ideally 0V to VDC. However, in the real circuit,
there may be voltage drops due to the internal resistance
of the circuit and the quality of the power supply. To
obtain a symmetrical signal of ±2.5 V, adjustment with a
dual supply or operational amplifier is necessary, but in
the actual implementation, small amplitude variations
may occur due to noise in the power supply or
imperfections in the components used.

Image 19. Exact results matlab. Own elaboration. 2. Are there any signal operations that
V. ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS cannot be performed with operational
amplifier circuits?

1. Compare the results with those obtained Yes, there are certain signal operations that cannot be
for the simulations and the implemented performed directly using operational amplifier circuits
circuits, Do they work the same or are due to their inherent limitations. Some of these include:
there discrepancies?
➢ Nonlinear and Time-Varying Operations
In the simulation, the signal generated by the 555 IC in
astable mode and its subsequent conversion to triangular
 ○ True logarithmic and exponential While operational amplifiers are extremely versatile in
functions: While logarithmic and analog signal processing, they have physical and
exponential amplifiers exist, they are functional limitations that require additional specialized
limited by the accuracy of circuits for certain applications.
semiconductor junctions and
temperature variations.
○ Multiplication and division: While op- VI. INVESTIGATION
amps can approximate these functions
using analog multipliers, they are not
straightforward operations like addition 1. How to solve differential equations with the
or integration. dsolve command of the Matlab Toolbox syms?

In MATLAB, the dsolve command is used to solve symbolic

differential equations. Below is a step-by-step guide on how to
➢ High-Frequency Signal Processing
use it.

○ Processing of very high-frequency

signals: Most op-amps have limited 1. Define the symbolic variables
bandwidth and slew rate, making them
First, declare the symbolic function using syms:
unsuitable for GHz-range applications
like RF signal processing. syms y(t)
○ Fast switching applications: Due to
finite response time, op-amps cannot This defines y(t) as a symbolic function of t.
replace specialized circuits like
comparators for high-speed digital
2. Write the differential equation
transitions.
Use the diff function to express derivatives. For example, if you
have a second-order equation where the second derivative of y
is added to four times the first derivative of y and five times y,
➢ Purely Digital Operations setting the result equal to zero, you can write:

○Boolean logic operations: Op-amps eqn = diff(y, t, 2) + 4*diff(y, t) + 5*y == 0;

cannot perform digital logic operations
(AND, OR, XOR) efficiently compared 3. Solve the differential equation
to dedicated logic gates.
○ Clocked sequential logic: Unlike flip- To obtain the general solution, use the dsolve command:
flops, op-amps cannot store binary states
or operate based on clocked logic sol = dsolve(eqn);
sequences.
➢ Power Handling Limitations 4. Solve with Initial Conditions (Optional)

○ High-power signal amplification: If you need to solve the equation with specific initial conditions,
such as when y(0) is equal to one and the first derivative of y at
Standard op-amps are designed for low-
zero is equal to zero, you can write:
power signal processing and cannot
drive high-current loads without sol = dsolve(eqn, y(0) == 1, diff(y, t)(0) == 0);
external transistors or power amplifiers.
○ Direct signal transmission over long
5. Display the solution
distances: Op-amps are not suitable for
high-power RF or communication To see the result in the MATLAB console, use:
transmission.
disp(sol)
Example: First-Order Differential Equation 𝑑𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
If is a first-order equation where the first derivative of y is added
to two times y and the result is equal to the exponential function Operational amplifiers in integrator or differentiator
of negative t, use the MATLAB code: configuration allow these circuits to be implemented
precisely by adjusting the R and C values.
syms y(t)
eqn = diff(y, t) + 2*y == exp(-t);
sol = dsolve(eqn); ● Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
disp(sol)
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is used for power control
in electronic circuits. It is based on varying the duty cycle
2. Electronic integrated circuits to generate square of a square signal while keeping the frequency constant.
waves, triangular waves, integrators, Some circuits that can generate PWM include:
differentiators and pwm modulations. IC 555 in PWM mode, modulating the charge and
discharge of the capacitor.
● Square Wave Generation Triangular wave comparators, where a triangular signal is
Astable multivibrators are circuits used to compared to a reference signal to modulate the pulse
generate square waves continuously. One of the width.
most common integrated circuits for this function
is the 555 IC, which in astable mode oscillates
between two states without the need for an REFERENCES
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