Chapter 13 Biochemistry – Complete Slo-wise Notes

Chapter 13: Biochemistry –

EXTREMELY DETAILED SLO-WISE
NOTES
Introduction to Biochemistry (Expanded)
Biochemistry is the branch of science that deals with the chemical composition,
structure, properties, and reactions of substances present in living organisms.
It bridges chemistry and biology and explains life at the molecular level. Every
biological activity such as breathing, digestion, growth, immunity, movement,
reproduction, and thinking is controlled by biochemical reactions.

Biochemistry helps us understand:

 How cells obtain energy

 How genetic information is stored and transferred
 How enzymes regulate metabolism
 How diseases develop and how medicines work

13.1 Knowledge
Understanding Proteins: Natural Polyamides,
Structures, Sources, and Uses

SLO-C-10-E-36

Describe proteins as natural polyamides and that they are formed from amino
acid monomers with the general structure

Definition of Proteins (Highly Expanded)

Proteins are high molecular weight organic compounds composed mainly of
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sometimes sulfur (S) and
phosphorus (P). They are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of
body tissues and organs.

Proteins are known as natural polyamides because:

 They are polymers made naturally in living organisms

 Their monomer units (amino acids) are joined by amide (peptide) linkages
 The repeating peptide bonds give proteins their polymeric nature

Amino Acids – Building Blocks of Proteins (Triple Detail)

Amino acids are small organic molecules that combine to form proteins. Each
amino acid has a common basic structure but differs in its side chain (R group).

Each amino acid contains:

1. Amino group (–NH₂) → Basic in nature

2. Carboxyl group (–COOH) → Acidic in nature
3. Hydrogen atom (–H)
4. Side chain (R group) → Determines properties of amino acid
5. Central carbon (α-carbon) → Chiral in most amino acids

General Structure of Amino Acid (Detailed)

H
|
NH2 — C — COOH
|
R

 The R group may be acidic, basic, neutral, polar, or nonpolar

 Glycine is the only amino acid without chirality
 Amino acids can exist as zwitterions in solution

Classification of Amino Acids

1. Essential amino acids (must be obtained from diet)

2. Non-essential amino acids (synthesized in the body)
3. Polar amino acids
 4. Non-polar amino acids
5. Acidic amino acids
6. Basic amino acids

Peptide Bond Formation (Condensation Reaction)

 When two amino acids react, the –COOH group of one reacts with the –
NH₂ group of another
 One molecule of water (H₂O) is released
 A peptide bond (–CO–NH–) is formed

Amino Acid + Amino Acid → Dipeptide + H2O

 Two amino acids → dipeptide

 Many amino acids → polypeptide
 Long polypeptides → proteins

SLO-C-10-E-37

Draw the general structure of proteins

General Structure of Protein (Expanded Explanation)

Proteins consist of long chains of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
The backbone of the protein is repetitive and consists of –NH–CH–CO– units.

—NH—CH(R)—CO—NH—CH(R)—CO—NH—CH(R)—CO—

Where:

 –NH– = amino group

 –CO– = carboxyl group
 R = side chain

Levels of Protein Structure (Very Detailed)

1. Primary Structure

 Exact sequence of amino acids

 Determined by genetic code
  Any change may cause disease (e.g., sickle cell anemia)
2. Secondary Structure

 Folding due to hydrogen bonding

 α-helix: spiral structure
 β-pleated sheet: zig-zag structure
3. Tertiary Structure

 Overall 3D shape
 Maintained by:
o Hydrogen bonds
o Ionic bonds
o Disulfide bridges
o Hydrophobic interactions

4. Quaternary Structure

 Combination of two or more polypeptides

 Example: hemoglobin (4 chains)

SLO-C-10-E-38

Explain the sources, use, and structure of proteins

Structure of Proteins (Expanded)

Proteins may be:

 Fibrous proteins (keratin, collagen)

 Globular proteins (enzymes, hormones)

Sources of Proteins (Detailed)

Animal Sources:

 Meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese

Plant Sources:
  Pulses, lentils, beans, soybeans, nuts

Uses and Functions of Proteins (Triple Expanded)

1. Structural support
2. Enzymatic catalysis
3. Transport of substances
4. Hormonal regulation
5. Immune defense
6. Muscle contraction
7. Storage proteins (casein, ferritin)

13.2 Knowledge
Lipids, Carbohydrates, Vitamins, and Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates – SLO-C-10-E-38

Definition (Expanded)

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substances that yield them

on hydrolysis.

Structure and Types (Detailed)

 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides

Sources

 Rice, wheat, sugarcane, fruits

Uses

 Energy production
 Energy storage
  Structural support

Lipids – SLO-C-10-E-38

Definition

Lipids are fatty substances insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

Structure

 Glycerol + fatty acids

Sources

 Oils, butter, ghee, nuts

Functions

 Energy reserve
 Insulation
 Cell membranes

SLO-C-10-E-39

Nucleic Acids – Importance (Highly Expanded)

DNA

 Double helix structure

 Stores genetic information

RNA

 Protein synthesis

Importance

 Heredity
  Cell control
 Evolution

SLO-C-10-E-40

Vitamins – Sources and Importance (Very Detailed)

Fat Soluble Vitamins

 A: Vision
 D: Bones
 E: Antioxidant
 K: Blood clotting

Water Soluble Vitamins

 B-complex
 Vitamin C

13.3 Knowledge
Applications of Biochemistry

SLO-C-10-E-41

Identify applications of biochemistry in testing (blood tests, pregnancy test,

cancer screening, parental genetic testing), genetic engineering, gene therapy,
and cloning

Biochemistry plays a vital role in modern medicine, diagnostics, and

biotechnology. By understanding biochemical molecules, reactions, and pathways,
scientists are able to diagnose diseases, treat genetic disorders, and improve human
health.
1. Applications of Biochemistry in Medical Testing
(Very Detailed)
Medical testing is one of the most important applications of biochemistry. These
tests are based on biochemical reactions, enzymes, antibodies, and
biomolecules.

(a) Blood Tests

Blood tests analyze the biochemical composition of blood to assess health and
detect diseases.

Biochemical Components Tested in Blood:

 Glucose
 Proteins (albumin, globulin)
 Enzymes
 Hormones
 Lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides)
 Electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺)

Common Biochemical Blood Tests:

1. Blood Glucose Test

o Measures glucose concentration
o Used to diagnose diabetes mellitus
2. Liver Function Tests (LFTs)
o Measure enzymes like ALT, AST, ALP
o Detect liver damage and hepatitis
3. Kidney Function Tests (KFTs)
o Measure urea and creatinine
o Assess kidney health
4. Lipid Profile
o Measures cholesterol and triglycerides
o Detects heart disease risk
�These tests depend on enzyme reactions and color changes, which are
principles of biochemistry.

(b) Pregnancy Test

Pregnancy tests are based on biochemical detection of hormones.

 During pregnancy, a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG) is released in urine and blood
 Pregnancy kits contain antibodies that specifically bind to hCG
 Binding produces a color change or line, confirming pregnancy

�This test is a direct application of:

 Protein–antibody interaction
 Hormone biochemistry

(c) Cancer Screening

Cancer screening uses biochemical markers called tumor markers.

Tumor Markers:

 PSA (Prostate cancer)

 AFP (Liver cancer)
 CA-125 (Ovarian cancer)

These markers are:

 Proteins or enzymes produced in abnormal amounts by cancer cells

 Detected through blood tests using biochemical techniques

Biochemistry helps in:

 Early cancer detection

 Monitoring treatment effectiveness
 Studying cancer metabolism
(d) Parental Genetic Testing

Parental genetic testing identifies inherited genetic disorders.

 Based on analysis of DNA, genes, and chromosomes

 Helps detect carrier status for diseases like:
o Thalassemia
o Hemophilia
o Sickle cell anemia

Biochemical techniques used:

 DNA extraction
 PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
 Gel electrophoresis

2. Applications of Biochemistry in Genetic

Engineering (Highly Detailed)
What is Genetic Engineering?

Genetic engineering is the process of altering the genetic material (DNA) of an

organism using biochemical and molecular techniques.

Biochemistry provides:

 Knowledge of DNA structure

 Enzymes used to cut and join DNA

Key Biochemical Tools Used:

 Restriction enzymes
 DNA ligase
 Plasmids

Applications:
  Production of human insulin
 Production of growth hormone
 Genetically modified crops

3. Applications of Biochemistry in Gene Therapy

(Very Detailed)
What is Gene Therapy?

Gene therapy is the treatment of genetic disorders by replacing, repairing, or

introducing genes.

Steps involved:

1. Identification of defective gene

2. Insertion of normal gene using a vector (virus)
3. Expression of correct protein

Diseases treated:

 SCID (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency)

 Hemophilia
 Some cancers

Biochemistry helps understand:

 Gene expression
 Protein synthesis
 Enzyme function

4. Applications of Biochemistry in Cloning (Extremely

Detailed)
What is Cloning?
Cloning is the production of genetically identical copies of cells, genes, or
organisms.

Types of cloning:

1. Gene Cloning
o Copying a specific gene
o Used in research and medicine
2. Reproductive Cloning
o Produces a whole organism
o Example: Dolly the sheep
3. Therapeutic Cloning
o Produces stem cells for treatment

Biochemical basis:

 DNA replication
 Cell division
 Protein synthesis

Importance of SLO-C-10-E-41 (Exam-Oriented

Points)
 Links biochemistry with real-life medical applications
 Explains role of biomolecules in diagnosis and treatment
 Essential for understanding biotechnology
 Frequently tested in exams as long questions