DIFFRACTION

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“The bending of light around the corner of an obstacle placed
in the path of light and spreading of light waves in to geometrical
shadow region is known as diffraction”.
Or
“Deviation from rectilinear propagation of light due to the obstacle/aperture”. Diffraction is a
characteristic property of waves.

2. Huygens wave theory of light

Interpretation of diffraction phenomenon was given by Fresnel. According to Fresnel, the
diffraction phenomenon is due to mutual interference of secondary waves originating from the various
parts wave front, which are not blocked off by the obstacle. Fresnel applied Huygens wave theory of
light. This theory was proposed by Huygen‟s in 1678.
According to him
 Each point on the primary wave front acts as source of secondary wavelet.
 The secondary wavelets from each point travel through space in all directions with velocity of light.
 A surface touching the secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any given time
constructs the new wavefront at that instant. This is known as secondary wavefront.
Consider the propagation of spherical or plane wavefront from a source S as shown in the
figure. At any time, suppose AB is a section of the primary wavefront drawn from the source S. To find
the position of secondary wavefront after time „t‟, consider points 1,2,3.. on the primary wavefront AB.
According to Huygen‟s principle, these points acts a source of secondary wavelets. Taking each point
as centre, and draw spheres of radius „ct‟ (where c= velocity of light). These spherical surfaces
represent the secondary wavelets and the surface touch the sphere‟s is known as secondary wavefront.

Spherical wavefront Plane wavefront

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3. Types of Diffraction
Depending upon the distance of the source from the aperture and type of wavefront will reach the
aperture, diffraction pattern is classified into two Fresnel‟s diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction.

FRESNEL DIFFRACTION FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

Either a point source or an illuminated

Extended source at infinite distance is used.
narrow slit is used.

The wave front undergoing diffraction is The wave front undergoing diffraction is
either spherical or cylindrical. plane wave front.

The source and screen are finite distance The source and screen are infinite distance
from the obstacle producing diffraction. from the obstacle producing diffraction.

Convex lens is used to focus the parallel

No lens is used to focus the parallel rays.
rays.

4. Difference between Interference and Diffraction

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

Superposition is due to two separate wave

Superposition is due to secondary wave lets
fronts originating from two coherent
originating from the same source.
sources.

The fringes have normally equal width. The width between fringes is not equal.

The intensity of bright fringes usually

All bright fringes have same intensity.
decreases with increase of order.
All dark fringes have zero intensity. The intensity of dark fringe is not zero.

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 5. FRAUNHOPER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

Consider a slit AB of width e perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Let a plane wave front WW‟

of monochromatic light of wave length λ propagating normally to the slit is incident on AB.
 According to Huygens wave theory every point on the wave front incident on the slit is act as a source
of secondary wavefronts.
 These secondary wavefronts travelling normal to the slit along „CO‟ are brought to focus at O by
using lens L2 on the screen.
 The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ with normal are focused at a point P on the screen.

The intensity at these points (O and P) depends on the path difference between secondary waves
originating from the slit AB. Since the secondary wavefronts, which are travel normal to the slit have
no path difference, therefore, the intensity at point O is maximum and is known as “Central
Maximum”.
To find the intensity at P, draw a normal AN on BP. The path difference between extreme rays
from slit AB is
BN = AB sin 𝜃 = e sin 𝜃
2𝜋
∴ The phase difference = e sin 𝜃
𝜆

Let the slit AB is divided into large number of n equal parts and the phase
difference between any two consecutive parts is equal to

1 2𝜋
e sin 𝜃 = d ( say)
𝑛 𝜆
The Resultant amplitude at P due to secondary waves from each slit having
amplitude a and phase difference d between successive waves is given by

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 𝑛𝑑
sin
2
R = a 𝑑
sin
2
𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
sin
𝜆
= a 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
sin
𝑛𝜆

sin 𝛼 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
= a 𝛼 where α =
sin 𝜆
𝑛

𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
Since n is large when compared with , sin may be replaced by
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼
R = a 𝛼 =na
𝛼
𝑛

sin 𝛼
= A (where A = n a)
𝛼

∴ The Resultant intensity at P

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝛼
I = A2
𝛼2

5.1 Conditions for Central/principal maximum

The resultant amplitude due to all the secondary waves reaching the point O from the Slit AB is
sin 𝛼 𝐴 𝛼3 𝛼5 𝛼7
R = A = 𝛼‒ + ‒ +⋯
𝛼 𝛼 3! 5! 7!
𝛼2 𝛼4 𝛼6
= A 1‒ + ‒ +⋯
3! 5! 7!
If α = 0 , then R will be maximum
i.e. R=A and I=R2=A2
𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
∴ when α = 0 => =0 or θ=0
𝜆

The resultant intensity at P is maximum for θ = 0 called the “Central/Principal maximum”.

5.2. Conditions for minima
The intensity due to secondary waves will be minimum,
If sin 𝛼 =0 but α ≠ 0 i.e α = ± m π where m = 1, 2, 3,
i.e. R=0 and I= 0
𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
∴ when α = ± m π => = ±mπ => e sin 𝜃 = ± m λ
𝜆

The values of m = 1, 2, 3, ……. gives the directions of Ist , II nd, III rd ,... order minima

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5.3 Conditions for secondary (subsidiary) maxima
In diffraction pattern, there are secondary maximas in addition to principal
maximum. The condition for fro secondary maxima obtained by differentiating Intensity w.r.t α and
equating to Zero.
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 2 sin 𝛼 2
= A =0
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝛼
sin 𝛼 𝛼 cos 𝛼−sin 𝛼
= 2 A2 =0
𝛼 𝛼2

sin 𝛼
Thus, either =0 or (𝛼 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 ) = 0 , or α = tan 𝛼
𝛼
sin 𝛼
The condition = 0 gives the position of principal maximum.
𝛼

Therefore, condition of secondary maxima is given by α = tan 𝛼. The values of α are obtained
graphically by plotting the curves, taking y= α gives straight line passing through the origin and making
an angle 450 with x-axis and the equation y = tan 𝛼 gives discontinuity curves on the same graph as
shown in figure.

The points of intersection of these two curves gives the positions of secondary maxima. These points
correspond to the value of
3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
α= ± , ± , ± , etc ……
2 2 2
𝜋
α = (2m±1) 2 where m =1,2,3,….

substituting the values of α in Intensity expression

I0 = A2 (principal maxima)
3𝜋 2
sin 𝐴2
2 2
I1 = A 3𝜋 = ( Ist subsidiary maxima)
22
2

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 5𝜋 2
sin 𝐴2
2 2
I2 = A 5𝜋 = ( IInd subsidiary maxima)
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2

Comparing Io, I1 and I2 it is clear that Intensity of secondary maxima is very low, when compared with
Central maxima.
5.4 Intensity distribution graph
The variation of intensity with α is shown in the figure. The diffraction pattern consists of a
central principal maxima occurring in the direction of incident rays. And secondary maximas with
3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
decreasing intensity on either side of central maxima at positions α = ± , ± , ± and so on.
2 2 2
Between secondary maxima, there are minimas at the positions α = ± π, ± 2 π, ± 3π.

POLARIZATION
1. Introduction

The phenomena of interference and diffraction establish the wave nature of light.
Polarization is an evidence for the transverse nature of light. Light is an Electromagnetic
wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. They are perpendicular to each
other and perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

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 Ordinary light sources like sun, electric bulb etc. emits Electromagnetic waves in
which electric vector is always perpendicular to direction of propagation of light and its
vibrations are on all possible directions. When it is passed through some crystals like
Tourmaline or Calcite the transmitted light consists OF only one plane of vibrations. This
phenomenon is known as polarization of light.

Definition: “The phenomenon of confining the vibrations of light in a specific

direction normal to the propagation of wave direction is known as polarization”.

2. Types of polarization

Polarized light can be classified in to three types they are

2.1 Linearly polarized light

“ Light that consists of an electric filed oscillating in only one direction is called
linearly plane polarized.

2.2 Circularly polarized light

“If two electric fields, assumed to be having a phase difference /2 and perpendicular to
each other, have same amplitude, then the resultant polarized light is called circularly
polarized light.

2.3 Elliptically polarized light

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“If two electric fields, assumed to be having a phase difference /2 and perpendicular to
each other, have different amplitude, then the resultant polarized light is called elliptical
polarized light.

3. Production of Polarized Light

3.1 Polarization by Reflection

When an unpolarized light beam is incident on the

surface of a transparent material, the reflected light may be
completely polarized, partially polarized, or unpolarized,
depending on the angle of incidence. But for a particular
angle of incidence called “Polarizing angle” (θp), the
reflected is light completely polarized.

At an angle (θp), the refractive index of the medium is equal to

the tan of the polarizing angle. This angle is called as
“Brewster’s angle”.
sin θp
According to Snell’s law µ= sin 𝑟

At the polarizing angle, the reflected rays are perpendicular to each other.

∴ θp+r+90o = 180o

r = 90o-θp
sin θp sin θp
µ= = = tan θp.
sin (90o −θp) cos θp

3.2 Polarization by Refraction

When light incident on a single glass surface or transparent medium, only a part
of incident beam reflects and other part refracts through the medium. If a number of
glass plates are arranged side by side with an angle 32.5o to the axis of the tube, it is
known as pile of glass plates. When an unpolarized light is incident on it at the
polarizing angle, some of the vibrations of electric vector, which are perpendicular to the
plane of incidence are effected and the rest are transmitted through it. In such a way,
each time the refracted light from the first plate undergoes refection and refraction by the
number of glass plates. Finally, the polarized light is produced by the pile of plates.

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 3.3 Polarization by Absorption (Dichroism)

The most common technique for producing polarized light is to use a material that
transmits light whose electric fields vibrate in a plane parallel to a certain direction and
that absorbs waves whose electric fields vibrate in all other directions. This process is
known as selective absorption. In 1938, E. H. Land discovered a material, which he called
Polaroid, that polarizes light through selective absorption by oriented molecules.

3.3 Polarization by Double Refraction

Double refraction, also called as birefringence. It is an optical property in which

a single ray of unpolarized light entering an anisotropic medium is split into two rays,
each traveling in a different direction.
Consider a Calcite crystal, when an unpolarized light incident on this crystal, the
refracted ray split in to two plane polarized rays.

Optic axis

 One ray (called the extraordinary ray: E-ray) is bent, or refracted, at an angle as it travels
through the medium; the other ray (called the ordinary ray: O-ray) passes through the
medium unchanged.
 Furthermore, the refractive index of the O-ray is observed to be constant in all
directions; the refractive index of the E-ray varies with respect to the direction.

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 Therefore, O-ray travels with same speed in all directions whereas E-ray travels with
different speeds along different directions.
 Thus, an E-ray can move either faster or slower than an O-ray.
 However, the velocity of E-ray and O-ray are equal when they travel along the optic axis
direction.
 If the velocity of E-ray is more than that of O-ray then the crystal is said to be negative
crystal (ex: Calcite)
 If the velocity of E-ray is less than that of the O-ray then the crystal is said to be positive
crystal (ex: Quartz)

3.4 Nicol prism

Nicol prism is an optical device which is used for producing and analyzing plane
polarized light in practice.

3.4.1 Principal
Nicol Prism is based upon phenomenon of total internal reflection and Double refraction.
It is constructed in such a way that O-ray is eliminated by total internal reflection and E-
ray gets transmitted through it.
3.4.2. Construction
 It is constructed from the calcite crystal whose
length is three times of its width.
• Its end faces PQ and RS are cut such that the
angles
in the principal section become 68° and 112° .
• The crystal is then cut diagonally into two parts.
The
surfaces of these parts are grinded to make
optically flat and then these are polished. •
Thus polished surfaces are connected together with
a special cement known as Canada Balsam. The
refractive index of Canada balsam
cement being 1.55 lies between those of ordinary and extraordinary and 1.4864,
respectively.

3.4.3 Working:
When a beam of unpolarized light is incident on the face PQ, it gets split into two

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 refracted rays, named O-ray and E-ray. These two rays are plane polarized rays, whose
vibrations are at right angles to each other. The Canada Balsam layer acts as an optically
rarer medium for the ordinary ray and it acts as an optically denser medium for the
extraordinary ray.
• When ordinary ray of light travels in the calcite crystal and enters the Canada balsam
cement layer, it passes from denser to rarer medium. Moreover, the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is totally internally reflected from the
crystal and only extraordinary ray is transmitted through the prism.
• Therefore, fully plane polarized wave is generated with the help of Nicol prism.

4. Quarter wave plate

Circularly polarized light can be produced by introducing a phase shift of π/2 or
path difference of λ/4 between two linear polarized lights. The device for doing this is
known as Quarter wave plate.
In other words, a doubly refracting crystal plate having thickness such as to produce a
phase difference of π/2 or path difference of λ/4 between ordinary and extraordinary wave
is call Quarter wave plate.
 Consider a doubly-refracting crystal plate. Let the optic axis is parallel to the face of the
plate.
 When a monochromatic light of wavelength λ incident on the face of crystal
(perpendicular to optic axis), the incident ray splits in to O-ray and E-ray.
Let µo, µe and t are the refractive indices of O-ray, E-ray and thickness of the crystal.
Then
The path followed by ordinary ray =𝜇𝑜 𝑡
The path followed by extra-ordinary ray =𝜇𝑒 𝑡
 Path difference =𝜇𝑜 𝑡~𝜇𝑒 𝑡 = λ/4
𝜆
𝑡=
4 µo − µe
For positive crystals
𝜆
𝑡=
4 µe − µo

A doubly refracting crystal plate having thickness such as to produce a phase difference of
π or path difference of λ/2 between ordinary and extraordinary wave is call Half wave
plate.

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 Half wave plate
A doubly refracting crystal plate having thickness such as to produce a phase difference
of π or path difference of λ/2 between ordinary and extraordinary wave is call Half
wave plate.
 Consider a doubly-refracting crystal plate. Let the optic axis is parallel to the face of
the plate.
 When a monochromatic light of wavelength λ incident on the face of crystal
(perpendicular to optic axis), the incident ray splits in to O-ray and E-ray.
 Let µo, µe and t are the refractive indices of O-ray, E-ray and thickness of the crystal.
Then
The path followed by ordinary ray =𝜇𝑜 𝑡
The path followed by extra-ordinary ray =𝜇𝑒 𝑡
Path difference =𝜇𝑜 𝑡~𝜇𝑒 𝑡 = λ/2
𝜆
 𝑡=
2 µo −µe

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