M4 Vehicle grid Interface: - • Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) interact with the power
systems through the charging and discharging functions of the vehicle’s energy storage unit.
• Charging the batteries to replenish the energy capacity, i.e., restoring the battery SOC as
the batteries get exhausted due to the operation of the vehicle is the most common and
frequent interaction mode between the PEV and the power grid. • There are emerging
technologies and evolving concepts that enable energy transfer from the PEV to the grid to
support grid functionalities such as meeting consumer electricity load demands, and grid
voltage and frequency support. • There are three modes of interaction between an electric
vehicle and the power grid based on the charging/discharging capability of the PEVs which
are grid-to-vehicle (G2V), vehicle-to grid (V2G) and vehicle-to-home (V2H). • The G2V, V2G,
V2V and V2H frameworks provide the infrastructure for the interactions between vehicle,
grid and home.
V2V is the one-way flow of electricity from the electrical grid to an Electric Vehicle. This is
the standard charging process that every EV owner uses when they plug their car in at
home, work, or a public charging station. The G2V Process: i. Source: Electricity is generated
at power plants (e.g., nuclear, natural gas, solar, wind, hydro). ii. Transmission &
Distribution: This electricity is transmitted over long distances via high voltage power lines
and then distributed to local communities and homes through a network of transformers
and substations. iii. Charging Station: The EV is plugged into a charging station (also called
EV Supply Equipment or EVSE). 1 iv. Conversion: The charger (which is often built into the
car for AC charging) converts the AC (Alternating Current) from the grid to the DC (Direct
Current) needed to store energy in the battery.
Vehicle to grid (V2G) Frame work:- Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) is a advanced technology that
enables bidirectional energy flow between electric vehicles (EVs) and the power grid. Unlike
conventional charging (G2V), V2G allows EVs to discharge stored electricity from their
batteries back to the grid when needed. The V2G Process: i. EV Plug-in:- The EV connects to
a bidirectional charging station. ii. Data Exchange: -EV communicates its state of charge
(SoC) and availability to the grid operator or aggregator. iii. Grid Signal: -When grid demand
increases, the operator sends a request for power support. iv. Energy Flow: -The EV
discharges part of its stored energy back to the grid
Vehicle to vehicle(V2V) Frame work: - The Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) charging framework is
an emerging technology that enables direct energy transfer between two electric vehicles
(EVs) one acting as the energy source (discharging) and the other as the energy receiver
(charging). • Enables information and energy exchange among EVs. • For energy exchange,
requires intermediary infrastructure and aggregator. • Typically set up via smart homes,
charging stations, parking lots, or community microgrids. • Features: • Involves multiple
EVs. • Simpler infrastructure than V2G, but needs a business aggregator. • Minimizes
transmission losses; can cooperate with DERs. • Can facilitate driving safety and
autonomous functions (V2V communication) via 5G or advanced networks.
Vehicle to home(V2H) Frame work: - The Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) framework is the system
that allows an Electric Vehicle (EV) to power a house, acting as a backup power source or a
daily energy resource. • Relies on bi-directional charger technology; allows energy flow both
ways between PEV and home. • Establishes a single-residence microgrid; involves one or
two household EVs. • Features: • Smoothing household load profiles through active power
exchange. • Can provide reactive power to the home/community microgrid without using
battery. • Maintains power reserve locally, reducing inter-grid trading losses. • Avoids extra
infrastructure and tariff requirements of V2G. • Minimizes transmission/distribution losses
due to co-location of load and generator.
Electric vehicle charging: - • The charging of an electric vehicle is facilitated by a number of
components including on board charger, home charger, fast chargers and connectors with
communication protocols and charging stations. • The EVs and PEVs are equipped with an
on-board battery charger to recharge the battery pack which can be connected to either a
120 V/240 V AC supply or a 400 V DC supply depending on what is provided. • Alternatively,
the vehicle can also recharge from a higher power AC or DC charger installed off-board in a
charging station. The simplest solution is the vehicle’s on-board charger which connects to a
residential or commercial single-phase AC supply. • The so-called Level 1 and Level 2 AC
chargers serve as an interface between the 120 V (Level 1 chargers) and 240 V (Level 2
chargers) supply line and the on-board charger, and can deliver up to 1.92 kW and 19.2 kW
to the vehicle for Level 1 and Level 2, respectively.
Main Components of EV Charging • On-board Charger: Integrated within the vehicle, allows
connection to a 120 V or 240 V AC supply (or 400 V DC supply for compatible vehicles). •
Home Charger: Typically connects to residential single-phase AC outlets, suitable for Level 1
(120 V) and Level 2 (240 V) charging. • Fast Chargers: Usually off-board at charging stations,
supply high-power AC or DC for much faster charging (Level 3). • Connectors and Cables:
Ensure safe power transfer and fit standards like CCS, CHAdeMO, or Type 2 for compatibility.
• Communication Protocols: Enable smart charging and safety via standards like OCPP and
IEC 61851. • Charging Stations: Public or private installations housing connectors, user
interfaces, and metering for safe, high-efficiency charging.
DC Fast Chargers:- • An indirect solution to the range anxiety of electric vehicle users is a
fast charging option to provide similar refueling experience that is experienced by the
drivers of the ICEVs. • DC fast chargers rated 120 kW or more with a 400 VDC–800 VDC
charging option which is a Level 3-type charger are designed to provide a quick charging
option to address the slow charging rates of Level 1 and Level 2 AC chargers. • While PEV
owners would still utilize the convenience of home charging with a Level 1 or Level 2
charger, the fast chargers are installed in a public charging station with multiple units
available to simultaneously serve multiple vehicles. • The fast chargers started appearing in
stations with 50 kW rating, but to meet the growing need of EV users, both the power rating
of the chargers and the number of installations are growing rapidly. • More recently, 120
kW chargers have been installed in the United States, and power levels up to 350 kW are
evolving. • A fast charger rated at 50 kW requires over 1 h to deliver enough charge for a
200- miles trip, while a 350 kW extreme fast charger (XFC) would only take about 10 min to
deliver the same amount of energy.
480V DC Fast Charger // A 480 V DC fast charger is used to provide high-power DC energy
directly to the electric vehicle battery for rapid charging. // The charger is supplied from a
three-phase AC source with a line-to-line voltage of 480 VAC or 400 VAC. // The DC fast
charger consists of two main power conversion stages: an AC/DC rectification stage and an
isolated DC/DC conversion stage. // The AC/DC rectification stage uses a three-phase
diode bridge to convert AC voltage into DC voltage // Since diode rectifiers are used, the
power flow in this stage is unidirectional, from grid to vehicle.// A Power Factor
Correction (PFC) unit is included in the front end to ensure acceptable power quality on the
grid side. PFC improves the input power factor, reduces reactive power, and boosts and
regulates the DC voltage.// The isolated DC/DC stage is the heart of the DC fast charger
and provides galvanic isolation between the grid and the vehicle. // In this stage,
regulated DC is converted into high-frequency AC for efficient voltage transformation. A
medium-frequency transformer provides electrical isolation and steps the voltage up or
down as required.// The transformer operates at tens to hundreds of kilohertz, resulting
in compact size and high power density. // The high-frequency AC is then rectified back to
DC and filtered to obtain a smooth DC output.// The filtered DC power is supplied directly
to the electric vehicle battery.// For Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) operation, bi-directional power
flow is required. // In V2G systems, the diode rectifier is replaced by an Active Front End
(AFE).// The AFE is implemented using reverse-conducting IGBT power modules. // IGBT-
based AFE systems typically operate at switching frequencies below 10 kHz // Future fast
charger systems are expected to use Silicon Carbide (SiC) power modules, allowing
switching frequencies above 30 kHz // During grid-to-vehicle operation, PWM rectifier
control algorithms are employed. // During vehicle-to-grid operation, PWM inverter
control algorithms are used.
M4 Medium Voltage (MV) Fast Charger Systems with Solid-State Transformers (SST):- • A
more efficient fast charger system can be built when the three-phase AC power is supplied
from a distribution system at medium voltage (MV) level provided by the utility . The
distribution voltage level is 12.47 kVA(line-to-line) or 13.2 kVA (line-to-line) for many utility
systems before it is stepped down to 480 VA (line-to-line) by a 50 Hz (i.e., low-frequency)
distribution transformer in the conventional approach. • In contrast, deploying an SST-based
fast charger connected directly to the MV level will provide efficiency and power density
benefits in addition to the many smart control features that can be incorporated within the
fast charger. • The SST is a power electronics-based controllable transformer wherein
communications and intelligence can be integrated for demand side management, control
of voltage and power factor on the grid side, elimination of customer-side harmonics, and
for providing isolation and protection features.
Electric vehicle charging station:- Chargers can be installed as isolated units or clusters (like
gas stations) to serve multiple EVs. Fast chargers are rapidly evolving, with more widespread
adoption expected as technology matures. There are two grid coupling considerations: •
Low voltage (LV) vs. medium voltage (MV) power distribution connection. • AC-coupled vs.
DC-coupled charging stations. AC-Coupled Charging Stations: • The most common current
configuration is AC coupling. • Connects chargers via a three-phase supply (up to 480 VAC)
using a dedicated service transformer (steps down 12–35 kVAC). • Each charger has an
AC/DC rectifier and DC/DC converter to provide DC power to the vehicle battery. • Includes
switchgear, large conductors, and typically operates at 60 Hz. DC-Coupled Charging Stations:
Uses a central MVAC to LVDC conversion, either with: • Low-frequency transformer and
central rectifier, or • Solid-State Transformer (SST) technology for high-frequency, efficient
conversion. • Central LVDC bus supplies individual DC fast chargers (each with internal
DC/DC converter). • Facilitates direct energy storage and renewable integration (like solar
PV). • Simplifies control and reduces components compared to AC systems.
Grid impact of fast chargers: - The power demand from the grid for charging a large
capacity battery-pack like that in a PEV is significant. The power demand is also varying
depending on the battery size and battery state-of charge. On top of these, there will be a
large variation in the power demand when multiple EVs charge simultaneously. This puts a
lot of strain on the utility both in terms on grid power flow management as well as for
meeting bursts of peak power demands. A suitable solution to address the power supply
challenges is to include a local storage capability within the charging station for system-level
benefits
Grid Power Management Challenges Rapid increases in EV adoption and charging station
installations—especially those using extreme fast chargers (XFCs) rated at 360 kW or higher
—can drastically multiply power demand. Modern charging stations with multiple XFCs may
have total power ratings in the multi-megavolt ampere (MVA) range, an order of magnitude
above traditional systems. As a result: • Feeder circuits may experience severe voltage
variations and even overload. • Power quality can deteriorate with increased risk of voltage
fluctuations and feeder congestion. • Infrastructure upgrades and grid reinforcements may
become necessary to accommodate growing peak demand. Local Storage Solutions
Integrating local storage—such as batteries—at fast-charging stations helps: • Smooth the
station’s power demand profile by storing energy when demand is low and discharging
during peaks. • Provide desired charging power to individual vehicles while minimizing
demand charges for station owners. • Offer flexibility and grid support by responding to
utility signals, thus avoiding high charges based on peak utility rates. However, local storage
adds extra investment and operational costs to station owners.
Electric vehicles in microgrids: - V2H, V2V and V2G operations fit with in microgrid systems.
Microgrids range from single household to large networked microgrids. Multiple sources,
storages and distributed loads in microgrids. Electric vehicles play a critical role within
microgrids with associated controls for symbiotic operation. // Microgrids and controls: - •
Microgrid interconnected DERs acting as a single controllable entity with the power grid. •
DERs include solar PV, wind, diesel generators, fuel cells, storage and controllable loads. •
Operate in controlled, coordinated mode when connected to main grid or in standalone
islanded mode. • Point of common coupling (PCC) connects microgrid to larger power grid.
• Reduces operational complexity by managing DERs and loads as group rather than
individually. • Enhance system efficiency by minimizing energy consumption and
environmental impact. • Reliability can be enhanced utilizing the DERs through providing
congestion relief, voltage and frequency control, • Evolving transportation systems with
PEVs can be an integral component of • the microgrid being connected as a DER to provide
services to both the homeowner and collectively with a cohort of PEVs to the grid.
Hierarchical controls in microgrids: - Microgrid control uses a hierarchical structure,
primary, secondary and secondary and tertiary control layers. Time scale separation among
layers optimizers control performance.
Primary and secondary -level controls:- • The primary control layer is responsible for
stabilizing the voltage and frequency, enable plug-n-play capability of DERs, avoid circulating
currents and islanding detection with the ability to work both connected to the network
and in a islanded condition. • The objectives of the secondary control are to restore the
microgrid voltage and frequency in case of deviations from nominal set-points,
enhancement of power quality and synchronization between microgrid and main power
network.
Tertiary control layer: - • Highest level of microgrid control, manages long term set points. •
Operates based on DER unit status, market signals and system requirements. • Ensures
stable, economic operation of the microgrid. • Balances power production and
consumption.
Droop-based controls in microgrids: - • Primary control layer often uses droop-based
methods for decentralized power balance. • Droop control matches generation with load by
allowing deviations in voltage and frequency. • Decentralized approach: no explicit
communication among interconnected units needed. • Controls voltage and frequency at
the interconnection node. Droop-Based Control in Microgrids (P–f and Q–V Droop
Characteristics) 1. Principle of Droop Control //When load increases: //Active power (P)
increases → frequency (f) decreases //Reactive power (Q) increases → voltage (V) decreases
//Each inverter adjusts its voltage and frequency automatically. // 2. P–f Droop (Active
Power–Frequency Control) -As more active power is delivered, inverter frequency slightly
decreases. The droop relation is: f = f₀ – m (P – P₀) //where // f₀ = nominal frequency, // m =
droop [Link] ensures proper active power sharing between generators. // 3. Q–V
Droop (Reactive Power–Voltage Control) // As reactive power output increases, inverter
voltage decreases. The droop relation is: V = V₀ – n (Q – Q₀) where //V₀ = nominal
voltage, // n = droop [Link] ensures reactive power sharing and maintains voltage
stability.
Oscillator-based controls in microgrids: - • Oscillator-based controls provide rapid
synchronization and robust power sharing among controls unit. • Types include virtual
oscillator control (VOC) and unified VOC (nVOC). • Time-domain controllers that combine
voltage tracking and primary control, no explicit calculation of real/reactive power required.
Describe oscillator-based controls used in microgrids. Explain how synchronization
between distributed generators is achieved. // Oscillator-based control is a decentralized
control method where each inverter or distributed generator (DG) in a microgrid behaves
like a virtual electrical oscillator. Instead of using only droop control, the inverter generates
its voltage waveform based on an internal oscillator model. // In this each inverter contains
a non-linear oscillator, such as a Van der Pol oscillator, Kuramoto oscillator, or virtual
oscillator controller (VOC). // These oscillators generate a sinusoidal voltage reference
without relying on PLLs (phase-locked loops). // The oscillators adjust their phase and
frequency automatically based on power flow. // Because all oscillators are coupled through
the electrical network, they naturally move toward a common frequency and phase// The
method mimics natural synchronization found in biological and physical systems (e.g.,
fireflies, pendulums). // Synchronization occurs due to coupling between oscillators through
the microgrid lines.//Mechanism: When two or more DGs are connected, their internal
oscillators sense the voltage difference or phase error between units. //The oscillator
automatically adjusts frequency and phase to reduce this difference.//This continues until
all DGs reach a common steady-state frequency (50/60 Hz) and stable phase angle.//No
communication is required — synchronization emerges naturally.
M4 Coordinated Control of Solar PV Generation, Storage and PEV:- The system overview
with coordinated control is shown in Figure • The coordinated control of the two storage
devices in the PV system and in the PEV can be used to provide benefits to both the
customer and the utility. • It integrates solar PV, home energy storage, and plug in electric
vehicles for optimal house hold profile. • Uses advanced dynamic programming algorithms
(SDDP, ADP, Machine learning) for automated, adaptive scheduling. Control
charge/discharge actions in storage and transportation needs. • Multiport converters
connect PV, batteries, home, grid, and EV for flexible energy control. Coordination enables
cost-effective energy management and voltage regulation. • Adapts energy dispatch to real
time forecasts of load demand and price signals. • The benefits of the coordination control
is smoother household energy profile and reduced electrical costs. • Ensures EV is charged
for both home use and travel needs.
Integrated Operation of Solar PV, Energy Storage, and EV
A typical solar PV generation and household load profile shown in Fig. 4.4(a) highlights the
mismatch between power generation and load demand. Solar PV produces maximum
energy during daytime, whereas household demand often peaks during morning and
evening hours. //When an energy storage system is integrated with PV, excess solar power
generated during the day can be stored and utilized later during periods of higher demand.
This improves energy utilization and reduces electricity purchase from the grid during high
tariff periods. // Homeowners with PV and storage systems may also own an
electric vehicle, enabling coordinated operation of multiple storage units. An ideal scenario
is achieved when the EV battery is charged using renewable energy generated by solar PV.//
By intelligently managing the PV system, stationary storage, and EV battery, homeowners
can reduce both electricity and transportation costs. However, to maximize these benefits,
an automated and optimized control algorithm is required.// The EV battery can function as
an additional household storage unit and provide services such as electricity cost
minimization, voltage regulation, and load regulation at the household level.
Multiport Converter for PV–EV Integrated System
The power electronics required for integrated operation of solar PV, EV, household load, and
the power grid is a multiport converter (MPC), as shown in Fig. 4.4(b). The MPC includes
ports for connecting the vehicle battery, renewable generation source, household load, and
the utility grid.
The MPC is configured using a DC-coupled architecture, where a common DC bus connects
the renewable source, energy storage, and grid interface. Separate DC/DC converters are
used to connect the solar PV and energy storage units to the DC bus.
A DC/AC converter interfaces the DC bus with the utility grid, while household loads are
connected to the AC line at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). Intelligent control of the
MPC enables efficient power and energy flow management among sources, storage, loads,
and the grid.
