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AQA GCSE Physics Your notes

Atoms & Isotopes

Contents
Atomic Structure
The Absorption & Emission of EM Radiation
Atomic & Mass Number
Isotopes
Positive Ions
The Plum Pudding Model
Rutherford Scattering
Bohr's Model of the Atom
Discovery of the Proton & Neutron
Changes in the Atomic Model

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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter
They are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m
This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across your thumbnail
Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their centre, with electrons orbiting around the nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it contains almost all of
the mass of the atom

Diagram showing the structure of a Lithium atom. If drawn to scale then the electrons would be around
100 metres away from the nucleus!
Parts of the Atom
The nucleus contains:
Protons - positively charged particles with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Neutrons – no charge, and also with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Almost all of the atom is empty space, but moving around the nucleus there are:

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Electrons – negative charge with almost no mass (1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron)
The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:
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Examiner Tips and Tricks

There are many different models of the atom. As you progress through the topic you will discover
that the atom can be described in many different ways, such as the Plum Pudding Model that is
covered later, but for your exam, make sure to only use the model and descriptions described here!
Be careful with your terminology:
Atom = nucleus (proton and neutron) and electrons
Nucleus = protons and neutrons at the centre of the atom

Electron Structure
Electrons in an atom orbit around the nucleus at particular distances, known as energy levels
A certain number of electrons can occupy each energy level
For example, only two electrons can orbit in the first energy level
Only eight electrons can fit in the second energy level, and eight in the third as well
The higher the energy level, the further the distance of the electron from the nucleus

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Your notes

In this diagram the first two energy levels are full. Electrons further from the nucleus have more energy
Like moving up a ladder, electrons in higher energy levels have greater potential energy because they
have more distance between them and the nucleus

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you are studying for your Chemistry GCSE then you will need to know the number of electrons that
fit into the different energy levels. They may also be called electron shells.

Electrons & Protons

Although atoms contain particles of different charge, the total charge within an atom is zero
This is because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons

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A Lithium atom has three protons, four neutrons and three electrons
The following table sets out the calculation of the total charge in the Lithium atom:
Total Charge Calculation Table

If an atom loses electrons, then it is said to be ionised

Worked Example
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A nucleus of carbon-12 is shown below.

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How many electrons are there in an atom of carbon-12?

Answer:
Step 1: Count the number of protons in the carbon nucleus
There are 6 protons in the carbon atom
Step 2: Determine the number of electrons
Remember, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons
Therefore there must be 6 electrons in the carbon atom

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The Absorption & Emission of EM Radiation

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The Absorption & Emission of EM Radiation
Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy levels
Lower energy levels are closer to the nucleus, whilst higher energy levels are further away from the
nucleus of the atom
These electrons can absorb energy
This happens when waves of electromagnetic radiation (such as light and heat) hit them
When electrons absorb electromagnetic radiation, they move to a higher energy level

The electron absorbs electromagnetic radiation which causes it to move up an energy level
Dark coloured objects are good absorbers of radiation
They appear dark because they do not reflect the energy that hits them

Emission of Electromagnetic Radiation

When an electron has moved up an energy level, it will be unstable
Eventually, it will move back down to its original energy level, which will be closer to the nucleus
As it moves back down, It emits a wave of electromagnetic radiation

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The electron emits a wave of electromagnetic radiation and moves down an energy level
All of the colours in the visible spectrum are produced in this way
The light waves come from electrons moving down energy levels and emitting electromagnetic
radiation

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Whilst you are expected to know about energy levels and the absorption and emission of
electromagnetic waves, you are not expected to know about the number of electrons in each
energy level or the way in which they fill up – that’s all part of Chemistry.

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Atomic & Mass Number

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Atomic & Mass Number
Atomic Number
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (it can also be called the proton number)
Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
For example:
Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no overall
charge

Mass Number
The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the atom
The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number
Number of Neutron = Mass Number - Atomic Number
For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of 11, then the number of
neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You may have noticed that the number of electrons is not part of the mass number. This is because
electrons have a tiny mass compared to neutrons and protons. We say their mass is negligible when
compared to the particles in the nucleus.

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Atomic and mass numbers in GCSE Physics are just the numbers that can be found on the periodic
table for every element. You have probably used the periodic table in your Key Stage 3 Chemistry
lessons, and if you take GCSE Chemistry or Combined Science. You are already familiar with these Your notes
numbers, just not necessarily using them in Physics! You will not be given a periodic table in your
Physics exam, but don't worry, you will be given the atomic numbers and mass numbers you need to
perform any calculations.

Nuclear Notation
The mass number and atomic number of an atom are shown by writing them with the atomic symbol
This is called nuclear notation
Here are three examples:

Examples of nuclear notation for atoms of Hydrogen, Sodium and Uranium

The top number is the mass number
This is equal to the total number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
The lower number is the atomic number
This is equal to the total number of protons in the nucleus
The atomic and mass number of each type of atom in the examples above is shown in this table:

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Your notes

Worked Example
The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in the gold atom?

Answer: D
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Step 1: Determine the atomic and mass number

The gold atom has an atomic number of 79 (lower number) and a mass number of 197 (top Your notes
number)
Step 2: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is equal to the number of protons
The atom has 79 protons
Step 3: Calculate the number of neutrons
The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons
The number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the atomic number
197 - 79 = 118
The atom has 118 neutrons
Step 4: Determine the number of electrons
An atom has the same number of protons and electrons
The atom has 79 electrons

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Isotopes
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Isotopes
Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the number of neutrons can
be different
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons but a different number
of neutrons
In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:

Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons

Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than others
For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms is Deuterium
Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion billion hydrogen atoms)

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
This topic is also covered in Chemistry, although some of the terminologies may be a little different.
However, in Physics you must refer to neutrons when explaining isotopes.

Differences Between Isotopes

The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, such as its
charge, but only its mass
This is because neutrons have no charge but do have mass
In the periodic table, the mass number of chlorine is often given as 35.5

This section of a periodic table shows chlorine as having a mass number of 35.5, but other elements
have an integer mass number
The mass number of chlorine is given as 35.5 because it has 2 isotopes, one with a mass number of 35
and the other with a mass number of 37
Chlorine-35 is about three times more abundant than chlorine-37, so the given mass number of
chlorine is closer to 35 than 37
The number of electrons and protons in different isotopes remains the same

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Some isotopes are unstable as they have an imbalance of protons and neutrons

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Worked Example
State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 atoms.
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is the number of protons
Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37 have 17 protons
Step 2: Determine the number of neutrons
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons
Chlorine-35 neutrons: 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Chlorine-37 neutrons: 37 - 17 = 20 neutrons
Step 3: Determine the number of electrons
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
Both chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 have 17 electrons

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Positive Ions
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Positive Ions
Electrons in the outer energy level can be knocked out from an atom
This can happen in a number of ways:
When objects are rubbed together, electrons can be removed by friction
When electrons absorb electromagnetic radiation they can gain enough energy to leave the atom
From chemical reactions
When one or more electrons are removed from an atom, it becomes positively charged
This is because an electron is negatively charged
The atom becomes a positive ion
An ion is an atom or particle with a non-zero charge

When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock electrons out, leaving the atom with an overall
positive charge
Ions are more chemically reactive than atoms because of their positive charge

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

Definitions are very important for picking up marks on this topic. Be clear with your definitions such Your notes
as ions and isotopes, and remember that ions have different numbers of electrons, whereas
isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
You met the idea of electron transfer in Static Electricity and Electric Charge. This is a good place to
pause and explore any misconceptions that you might have. For objects or atoms to become
charged, it is always the movement of electrons that causes it. Positive protons are locked away in
the nucleus, so protons can't move around from atom to atom, but electrons can. Electrons are
negatively charged. So if a neutral atom or object gains electrons, then it becomes more negative, it
gains a negative charge (remember that when an atom gains a charge, we no longer call them atoms,
we call them ions). In order for a neutral atom or object to gain a positive charge, it must lose
electrons. The ion or object is left with more positive charge than negative, and so the overall charge
of the ion or object is positive.

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The Plum Pudding Model

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The Plum Pudding Model
Scientists understanding of what atoms are has changed through time
Different models have been developed, and then replaced as new evidence from experiments is
discovered
A model is a way of describing something in order to explain the way it behaves

Early Models of the Atom

Greek and Indian philosophers were the first to try and describe the idea of everything being made up
of smaller parts
The Greek philosopher, Democritus, thought that although objects could be cut into smaller pieces,
the smallest possible piece would be indivisible (it could not be cut any further)
The Greek word for ‘indivisible’ is atomos

Democritus thought about cutting objects into smaller and smaller pieces until they were indivisible

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Therefore, atoms were initially thought to be tiny spheres that could not be divided before the
discovery of the electron
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Later models described the atom as small solid spheres

What is the Plum Pudding Model of the Atom?

At the end of the 19th Century, Physicist Joseph Jon Thomson discovered the existence of electrons
This new evidence meant a better model of the atom was required
Thompson proposed the Plum Pudding model
The atom was thought to consist of negatively charged electrons (the ‘plums’) in a positively
charged ‘dough’ or ‘pudding’

J J Thomson thought of the atom as being a positively charged mass embedded with small negatively
charged electrons – a bit like a plum pudding
It was known that electrons were much smaller than atoms, so it made sense that they should be
embedded within the larger atom
Since electrons have a negative charge, it was reasoned that the rest of the atom would be positive,
making the atom neutral overall

Why was the Plum Pudding Model Replaced?

Further experiments in 1909 produced results that could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model,
so it was replaced by the nuclear model

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

For the exam you need to be able to describe the features of JJ Thomson’s Plum Pudding model, but Your notes
you do not need to know how electrons were discovered (this is covered at A Level), or about very
early atomic models.

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Rutherford Scattering
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Rutherford Scattering
Alpha Scattering
In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding model
Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
to carry out the experiment
They were directing a beam of alpha particles (He2+ ions) at a thin gold foil
They expected the alpha particles to travel through the gold foil, and maybe change direction a small
amount
Instead, they discovered that :
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil
Some of the alpha particles changed direction but continued through the foil
A few of the alpha particles bounced back off the gold foil
The bouncing back could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model, so a new model had to be
created

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Your notes

When alpha particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through, some are deflected
and a very small number bounce straight back
The Nuclear Model
Ernest Rutherford made different conclusions from the findings of the experiment
The table below describes the findings and conclusions of A, B and C from the image above:
Alpha Scattering Findings and Conclusions Table

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Your notes

Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom

In the nuclear model:
Nearly all of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the centre of the atom (in the nucleus)
The nucleus is positively charged
Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus at a distance
Rutherford’s nuclear model replaced the Plum Pudding model
The nuclear model could explain experimental observations better than the Plum Pudding model

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The Nuclear model replaced the Plum Pudding model as it could better explain the observations of
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment

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Bohr's Model of the Atom

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Bohr's Model of the Atom
In 1913 the Danish Physicist, Niels Bohr, came up with an improved model of the atom
He used the nuclear model to create his model
In the Bohr model of the atom:
Electrons orbit the nucleus at different distances
The different orbit distances are called energy levels
Up to 2 electrons orbit in the first energy level
Up to 8 electrons can orbit in the second energy level
Up to 8 electrons can orbit in the third energy level

In the Bohr model of the atom electrons orbit in distinct energy levels, which are at different distances
from the nucleus

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Successes of the Bohr Model

The Bohr model became the accepted model because: Your notes
It was able to explain the findings from different experiments better than the nuclear model of the
atom
It was able to explain the processes of absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation
Theoretical calculations made using the Bohr model agreed with experimental results

Worked Example
The Bohr model of the atom replaced the nuclear model of the [Link] the main advantage
of the Bohr model over the nuclear model.
Answer:
Step 1: Describe the difference between the two models
The nuclear model describes the atom as having a positively charged nucleus with electrons
orbiting it
The Bohr model is similar to the nuclear model in that it describes the atom as having a positively
charged nucleus but the electrons orbit at specific distances in distinct energy levels
Step 2: Describe why the Bohr model was better
The Bohr model could explain the findings of experiments better than the nuclear model

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The changing atomic model is a topic in which the scientific process is often explored. You are
expected to know about this, but often it will not be taught in isolation. In science, there are no
absolute 'facts', there are just theories that have yet to be disproven. In science, we change our way
of thinking based on evidence. Using the scientific method, we come up with theories based on
observation, make predictions based on the new theory, then we test the prediction using
experiments. If the experimental evidence doesn't fit the prediction, we change the theory.
The 'facts' we learn in science are our best understanding to date of how things work. However,
these theories have been rigorously tested by many scientists many times, and those experiments
have been peer-reviewed - meaning that a panel of scientists has assessed the validity of the results

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from the experiment. This scientific process ensures that we can be as certain as possible about our
body of knowledge whilst striving to learn new things.
Your notes

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Discovery of the Proton & Neutron

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The Discovery of the Proton
The nuclear model was improved when the particles within the nucleus were discovered
Ernest Rutherford discovered that the positively charged nucleus of all materials could be broken
down into smaller positively charged particles
The smallest of these parts had the same charge as a Hydrogen nucleus
This amount of charge is called the elementary charge
He called the positively charged particles in the nucleus as protons
‘Proto’ means original - protons are the original unit of positive charge

Worked Example
An alpha particle is the nucleus of a Helium atom.

Determine the charge of an alpha particle.

Answer:
Step 1: Determine the number of protons in the particle
The alpha particle has two protons
Step 2: Determine the number of electrons
There are no electrons in the nucleus of an atom
Since the alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it has no electrons
Step 3: Determine the charge of the alpha particle
The total charge is the sum of the positive protons and negative electrons
There are 2 protons and 0 electrons
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2–0=2
The charge on the alpha particle is +2 Your notes

The Discovery of the Neutron

After the discovery of the proton, many scientists saw evidence of another particle in the nucleus but
could not prove it
It was about 20 years after models of the nucleus at the centre of the atom, that the final particle was
confirmed
In 1932, James Chadwick proved the existence of neutrons in the nucleus, he discovered:
A neutron has a mass similar to the proton
A neutron has no charge - it is neutral
The discovery of the neutron gave another, better model of the atom
A positive, dense nucleus made from neutrons and protons
Negative electrons on different energy levels orbit the nucleus

The models of the atom changed a lot at the start of the 20th Century. The discovery of the neutron
allowed this model to be created

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Changes in the Atomic Model

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Changes in the Atomic Model
The understanding of the structure of an atom has changed over time
The best model of an atom is the one that can explain the evidence of experiments best
The image below shows a timeline of the different models of the atom

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Scientific models are used to explain observations. Models of the atom have changed and improved
throughout history
Your notes
Comparing Atomic Models
Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment led to a change in the atomic model
The Plum Pudding model was replaced by the nuclear model
The nuclear model could explain why the alpha particles bounced back from the gold foil
Differences between the Plum Pudding and Nuclear model Table

Worked Example
An experiment, designed to investigate the ‘plum pudding’ model, involved firing alpha particles at a
thin gold foil. If the ‘plum pudding’ model was correct, then most of the alpha particles would go
straight through the gold foil. A few would be deflected but by very small angles.
The results of the experiment were unexpected. Although most of the alpha particles did go straight
through the gold foil, about 1 in every 8 000 was deflected by very large angles. Using the nuclear
model, the scientist Ernest Rutherford devised an equation to predict the proportion of alpha
particles that would be deflected through various angles.
The results of the experiment were the same as the predictions made by Rutherford.
Explain:

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a) Why this experiment led to a new model of the atom, called the nuclear model, which replaced the
‘plum pudding’ model.
Your notes
b) Why it is important that the experimental results and the predictions are the same.
Answer:
Part (a)
The experimental results of the gold foil experiment could not be explained using the plum
pudding model
Therefore, the plum pudding model was disapproved and a new model, the nuclear model, was
devised to match the results
Part (b)
If the predictions are correct, then this proves that the nuclear model is correct

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