WORKSHOP PRACTICE

Lecture 2: Engineering Materials

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Introduction – Material Applications

Firecrackers

Aerospace
Applications Semiconductors

Sports Equipment

Automobiles Buildings

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Materials Classifications Based on Properties
Material
Classification

Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites Semiconductors

• High thermal • Low thermal • Thermal insulators • High strength • Variable resistivity
conductivity conductivity • Brittle • Low density • P-type doping
• High Density • Low Density • Electrical insulators • Electrical insulators • N-type doping
• Ductile • Low electrical • High stiffness • High stiffness
• High electrical conductivity • Stronger in • High strength
conductivity • Lower stiffness compression than • Ductile
• High stiffness • Lower strength tension
• High strength • Chemically inert
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Properties of Materials
• Case Study: Soft-drink bottle
• Properties need to be considered
▪ Low density
▪ Stiffness
▪ Chemically inert
▪ Formable
▪ Recyclable
▪ Inexpensive
• Examples: Aluminium, Glass,
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

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Properties of Materials
1. Physical Properties
• Density, Melting point
2. Mechanical Properties
• Strength, Stiffness, Hardness, Wear resistance
3. Electrical Properties
• Resistivity, Conductivity, Capacitance
4. Thermal Properties
• Heat capacity, Thermal conductivity, Melting point
5. Optical Properties
• Refractive index, Transmittivity
6. Chemical Properties
• Corrosion resistance, Solvent resistance
7. Magnetic Properties
• Magnetization, Permeability
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Mechanical Properties
• Tensile strength
• Yield stress
• Elastic modulus
• Poisson’s ratio
• Ductility
• Hardness
• Toughness

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[Link]
Types of Loads and Stresses
• The mechanical properties are defined in such a way that they are independent of the size and
geometry of the material specimen

Tensile Loading

Compressive Loading

Shear Loading
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[Link]
Stress and Strain
• When any solid body is subjected to external load,
resisting forces are set-up within the body. These internal
resistances are called stresses.
• A body subjected to tensile load, the corresponding
resistance set-up in the body is known as tensile stress.
• When a material is subjected to a compressive load, the
corresponding stress is known as compressive stress.
• When a section is subjected to the shear loading, the
body is in a state of shear, the corresponding stress is
known as shear stress.
• Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to
original dimension.

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Stress and Strain Tension

𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹) 𝐹

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝜋
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) 2
𝐷 0
4

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (∆𝐿) 𝐿1 − 𝐿0

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿0 ) 𝐿0

The strain in the direction of the applied load is known as linear

strain or axial strain.
𝐿1 − 𝐿0
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 =
𝐿0
The strain in the perpendicular direction is known as lateral
strain or perpendicular strain.
𝐷1 − 𝐷0
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 =
𝐷0
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Poisson's Ratio
• Poisson's ratio : The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain

+𝜀𝑧 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

−𝜀𝑥 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

For isotropic material:

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑥
ν=− =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑧

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 Stress Strain Graph
Elastic Elastic Plastic
Region + Region
U
Plastic
Region

YU F
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎

YL
P

P = Proportionality limit
C B YU = Upper Yield Point
YL = Lower Yield Point
U = Ultimate Strength
F = Fracture Point

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
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[Link]
Examples of Stress-Strain Graphs
Brittle
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 Ductile

Plastic Elastomer

0.2%
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
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Stress-strain Curve Characteristics
• The maximum stress from which the bar can return to its original length is the material's elastic limit, also
called as proportional limit.
• The stress-strain relation is linear in the elastic region and the ratio of stress to strain, in the linear elastic
region, is called Young’s modulus, E.
𝜎 𝐹𝐿0
𝐸= =
𝜀 𝐴0 ∆𝐿
• Physical significance of the Young's modulus (elastic modulus): It is a measure of the interatomic bonding
forces and, therefore, the stiffness of the material.
• A stiff material exhibits small deformation under large applied load.
• Yield point is defined as the first stress in the material at which an increase in strain occurs without an
increase in stress. This behavior is known as yielding.
• The maximum stress that a bar will withstand before failing is the measure of its tensile strength, or ultimate
tensile strength.
• The stress at which the bar breaks is its breaking strength or rupture strength.

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Mechanical Properties

Ductility Brittleness
• Ductility of a material is measured by • A material that undergoes very little plastic
percentage elongation or reduction in area of deformation before rupture is called brittle.
a specimen after fracture. • A brittle material exhibits no yielding and
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
% 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
× 100 does not exhibit necking phenomenon.
=
𝑙 − 𝑙0
× 100 • It ruptures suddenly and without warning at
𝑙0
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
the ultimate strength.
%𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 • Brittle materials are weak and unreliable in
= × 100 tension.
𝐴0

Material %elongation
• Cast iron, glass, and ceramics are the few
Mild steel 20% examples of brittle materials.
Cast iron 1%
Thermoplastics 50% - 500%
Thermosets 0.1% - 1% Ravindra G Bhardwaj 14
Mechanical Properties
Toughness Hardness
• It is measure of the energy per unit volume a • It is surface property measuring its resistance
material can absorb before it fractures. to abrasion and indentation.
• Toughness can be measured as the area
under the stress-strain curve up to point of
fracture.
• Good strength and ductility.

• Mohs scale: Qualitative hardness indexing

scale. 1 for talc (soft) and 10 for diamond
(hard) • Techniques:
✓ Rockwell hardness tests
✓ Brinell hardness test
✓ Vickers microhardness test
✓ Knoop microhardness test
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Mechanical Properties
Malleability Resilience
• Malleability of a material is its ability to be • Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
flattened (deformed) into thin sheets without energy elastically.
cracking. • On removal of the load, the energy stored is
• Ductility is a tensile quality (ability to deform given off exactly as in spring when the load is
under tensile stress) whereas malleability is a removed.
compressive quality (ability to deform under • Resilience is measured by the triangular area
compressive stress). under the elastic portion of the stress-strain
• Materials like aluminum, lead, copper, and tin curve.
have good malleability. • Greater resilience = Capable of absorbing
greater impact energy without any plastic
deformation.
• Applications: shock absorbers, springs.

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Common Engineering Materials

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Cast Iron
• Ferrous metal: Alloy of Iron with
2.1 to 4.5% carbon and 3.5%
silicon.
• Hard and Brittle

• Applications: • Advantages
• Machine beds and frames • Good vibration damping
• Knobs
• Impellers • Good compressive strength
• Pipe flange • Wear resistance
• Wheel rim Ravindra G Bhardwaj 18
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Steel
• Iron and carbon alloy in addition
to manganese, silicon, chromium
and copper.
• Types of steels:
1. Low carbon steel or mild steel
(0.05 to 0.3%C)
2. Medium carbon steel (0.3 to
0.7%C)
3. High carbon steel (0.7 to 1.5%C).

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Aluminium, and Copper

Aluminium Copper
• Non-ferrous material • Non-ferrous material
• High thermal conductivity • High thermal conductivity
• High electrical conductivity • High electrical conductivity
• Good corrosion resistance • Brass: Alloy of copper and zinc
• Low density • Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin
• Applications: utensils, electrical • Applications: utensils, decorative
appliances, airplanes, jet things, valves, bearings.
engines

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[Link]
Zinc and Tin

Zinc Tin
• Zinc and zinc alloy have low • Soft and ductile
melting point. • Good malleability
• Brittle at room temperature • Good corrosion resistance
• Ductile at 110°C to 150°C • Good fatigue resistance
• 4th most used industrial material • Applications: bearings, cans,
• Applications: carburettors, fuel solder wire
pumps, automobile parts

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Selection of Materials

Define material • Properties of component

requirements • Cost, durability, strength, life-span, etc.

Find the possible • List all materials satisfy the material requirement
material(s). • List all the properties of the materials

• Final material selection

Make a choice • Selection factors: availability of raw material, cost,
processing steps, environmental factors, etc.

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Example: 1
• Timber post having a rectangular cross-section has one side of section
twice the other. The timber post is subjected to compressive load of
10 kN. The load compresses the post by 0.05 mm for 1 m length. If
the modulus of elasticity of timber is 10 GPa, calculate the
dimensions of the post.

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