Structural Geology

(Geol 2041)

By: Ashebir S. (Ph.D.)

Bahir Dar University
School of Earth sciences/ Geology

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Who is Ashebir?
◼ [Link]. Degree in Applied Geology,
❑ Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia

◼ [Link]. Degree in Geo-information Science and Earth

Observation for Mineral Resource Exploration,
❑ University of Twente-ITC faculty, Enschede, Netherlands

◼ [Link]. Degree in Geosciences, specialization in

Hydrogeology and contamination,
❑ University of Oslo, department of geosciences, Oslo,
Norway.

◼ Ph.D. Degree In Geology

❑ University of Gent, Departement of Geology, Gent,
Belgium

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1. INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

➢ History of structural Geology

➢ Concepts and objective
➢ Primary and secondary structures
➢ Environment of deformation

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 History of structural Geology

In the seventeenth century came the first description of rock deformation.

Nicholas Steno (1631–1686) examined outcrops where the bedding of

rock was not horizontal, and speculated that strata that do not presently lie
in horizontal layers must have in some way been dislocated (the term he
used for deformed).
Perhaps Steno’s establishment of the principle of original horizontality
can be viewed as the birth of structural geology
James Hall (1811–1898) recognize that Paleozoic strata in the Appalachian
Mountains of North America were much thicker than correlative strata in
the interior of the continent.
This discovery led to the development of the geosynclines theory, a
model in which deep sedimentary basins,
Building on the work of Alfred Wegener’s continental drift theory and
Arthur Holmes’s mantle convection
Finally Harry Hess proposed the revolutionary idea of a mobile seafloor
(seafloor spreading hypothesis) that lead to the formulation of plate
tectonic theory.

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 Concepts and objectives
From your introductory geology course, you probably had a
general concept of what a geologic structure is.

The most fundamental definition of a geologic structure is a

geometric feature in rock whose shape, form, and distribution
can be described

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY is the study of the architecture of

rocks and regions that have developed from DEFORMATION
Structural Geology can be defined as a branch of geology
concerned with the shapes, arrangements, and inter-
relationships of bedrock units and the forces that cause them.

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◼ Why an understanding and knowledge of Structural
Geology is important? (objective)

❑ Understanding structural geology can help us more fully appreciate

the problem of finding more of the earth’s natural resources, such as
water, metal ores, petroleum & gas, rock aggregates, etc.
❑ To understand earthquake for example, one must know about faults.
❑ Appreciating how major mountain belts and the continent have
evolved calls for a comprehension of faulting and folding.
❑ Understanding plate-tectonic theory as a whole also requires a
knowledge of structural geology
❑ In areas of active tectonics, the location of geologic structure is very
important in selection of suitable sites for buildings, dams, highway,
bridge, tunnels, nuclear power plants, etc.
❑ The knowledge of structural geology is also very important in
geohazards (landslide, earthqukae, tsunami, subsidence, erosions,
etc) mitigation and control measures.

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Structural geology is mainly concerned about addressing 3 questions

1. WHAT IS THE DEFORMATION?

2. HOW DID IT TAKE PLACE?

3. WHAT WAS THE CAUSE?

DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS

KINEMATIC ANALYSIS

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

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 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS (=GEOMETRY)
What is the deformation? What is the structure?

In answering this question it requires:

RECOGNIZING and DESCRIBING the geometrical aspects of the
structure (primary, secondary, and contact)
Recognition or description of structures may be based on;
• Aerial photo and remote sensing data interpretation
• Direct observation in the field
• Micro-fabric study in thin-section
• Drilling into the subsurface
• Geophysical monitoring and probing of the subsurface
• Laboratory study of experimentally deformed rocks etc.
MEASURING and RECORDING the orientation of structural elements
(physical and geometric elements), e.g. angles between lines and between
planes.
This may include careful recording of data in notebook, making sketches,
taking pictures etc.

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 Fieldwork Representation of Geological
Information

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 What type of geological structure do you observe on ASTER image below

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 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS (= ROCK MECHANICS)
How does deformation took place?
How do rocks behave during deformation?
In answering this question it requires:

EXAMINING and UNDERSTANDING the deformation

behaviour of rock (e.g. brittle, ductile, elastic, viscous
behaviour etc.) and the type of deformational movements and
changes (including distortion, dilation, translation, rotation of
the deforming body)

EVALUATING and DETERMINING the structural change in

terms of extension, stretch, angular shear, shear strain etc.
(=STRAIN ANALYSIS)

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 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS (= ROCK MECHANICS)
What is the cause of deformation?
Under what physical conditions did the structure form?
In answering this question it requires:

EXPLAINING and ANALYSING the type of stress field

responsible for deformation
(e.g. the values of principal stress axes, normal and shear
stresses etc.)

INTERPRETING and RECONSTRUCTING the physical

and boundary conditions prevailed during deformation
(e.g. P-T conditions, pore-fluid conditions, relation to
PLATE TECTONICS etc.)

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 Therefore, in dealing with structural geology one
needs to know:

➢How to recognize and describe the structure

➢What to measure structural element and
accurately record data
➢How to analyse, evaluate and explain the data
collected
➢How to interpret the data, reconstruct and
incorporate it into regional synthesis of an
area/region

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 STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY

RECOGNITION
DESCRIPTION
MEASUREMENT
ANALYSIS
INTERPRETATION

GEOMETRIC APPROACH MECHANICAL APPROACH

DESCRIPTIVE KINEMATIC DYNAMIC

ANALYSIS ANALYSIS ANALYSIS

RECONSTRUCTION AND
INCORPORATION OF RESULT
INTO REGIONAL SYNTHESIS

= STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

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Strain
The
Controlling
Transposition
Boudins,
Coulomb
ellipse
Mullions
Factors
and
Lawstrain
aRods
of
ofFailure
Folding
equations

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS (= ROCK MECHANICS)

Unit 2: Dynamic analysis of structures [10hrs]
• Forces and stresses
• Normal stress and shear stress
• Stress component at a point
KINEMATIC ANALYSIS (= ROCK MECHANICS)
Unit 4: Mechanical behaviour of rocks [5hrs]
Unit 3-Kinematic analysis of structures [10hrs]
• Rigid-body and non rigid-body deformations • Elastic, plastic and viscous behavior of rocks
• Measurement of strain ..Strain ellipse and • Rock Strength and Triaxial Tests
strain equations • Controlling factors on rock mechanics
• Pure shear and simple shear Unit 5:Mechanisms of deformation [5hrs]
• Stress-strain relationships in rocks • Micro-fracturing and Cataclasis
• Determination of strain in rocks • Mechanical Twinning and Kinking
• Creep (Diffusion Creep, Dissolution Creep, Dislocation Creep)
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS (=GEOMETRY)
Unit 6 :Joints and shear fractures [10hrs] Unit 7: Fault systems [5hrs]
• Joints and their classification, Veins and Stylolites • Fault anatomy and Fault geometry
• Fracture mechanics/ modes of fracturing • Classification of faults: Normal, Strike-Slip and Reverse faults
• Propagation of Fracture Surfaces • Recognition and Description of Faults
• Dynamic Analysis and Mechanism of Faulting
Unit 8: Folds and mechanisms of folding [10hrs]
• Fold morphology Unit 9: Foliation in rocks [5hrs]
• Shape of folds and fold profiles • Types and classification of foliation
• Classification of folds • Mechanisms of fabric development in rocks
• Poly-phase folding and Fold interferences • Axial-planar cleavages
• Models of folding and Mechanism of Buckling Unit 11:Shear zones and progressive deformations [5hrs]
Unit 10: Lineations [5hrs] - Shear zones and their geometry
• Lineation by intersection of foliations - Development of shear zones. Identification of shear zones
• Elongation lineation - Kinematic indicators of sense of shearing Progressive deformation

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 ENVIRONMENT OF DEFORMATION

 Deformation takes place as a result of external force, the source

of which can be: - Movement of magma,
- Mantle convective currents
- Gravity of the earth or
- Combination of all (Tectonic forces)

 Tectonic forces are the most common causes of deformation.

The principal forces and resistances that control plate
movements are: - Ridge Push (RP)
- Slab Pull (SP)
- Slab Suction (SS)

- Ridge Resistance (RR)

- Slab Resistance (SR)/ Slab-Drag
Resistance (SDR)
- Mantle Drag (MD)

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TECTONIC REGIMES MAJOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

A. ACTIVE PLATE MARGINS

a) Constructive plate margin (Mid-oceanic ridge) Extensional fault system; strike-slip fault system
e.g. Icelandic Rift system
a) Conservative plate margin Strike-slip fault system
e.g. San Andreas fault system, Dead Sea transform fault
a) Destructive plate margin (Converging plate margin) Subduction complexes; Fold and thrust belt
e.g. Japanese Island Arc system
a) Collision Zone Over-thrust sheet; fold nappies; strike-slip faults
e.g. Himalayan collision zone
B. INTRAPLATE REGIMES

a) Passive Continental Margin Normal faulting; Syn-depositional structures

e.g. Western African continental margin; Eastern American
continental margin

a) Continental Rift Zones Extensional (normal) faulting; Strike-slip systems

e.g. East African Rift; North Sea Basin linking extensional faults
a) Intra-plate Strike-slip Zones Major fault systems, associated en-echelon folding.
e.g. Northern Rocky Mountain
a) Intra-plate fold and fault belts Variable folding and thrusting; Extensional faulting
e.g. Basin and Range, USA associated with regional uplift

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 Geological structures classification
schemes
I. Classification based on geometry, that is, on the
shape and form of a particular structure
❑ Planar (or subplanar) surface
❑ Curviplanar surface
❑ Linear feature
In this scheme we include the following classes
of structures: joint, vein, fault, fold, shear zone,
foliation, and lineation.

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II Classification based on geologic significance

❑ Primary: formed as a consequence of the formation process of the

rock itself

❑ Local gravity-driven: formed due to slip down an inclined surface;

slumping at any scale driven by local excess gravitational potential

❑ Local density-inversion driven: formed due to local lateral variations

in rock density, causing a local buoyancy force

❑ Fluid-pressure driven: formed by injection of unconsolidated

material due to sudden release of pressure

❑ Tectonic: formed due to lithospheric plate interactions, due to

regional interaction between the asthenosphere and the lithosphere,
due to crustal-scale or lithosphere-scale gravitational potential energy
and the tendency of crust to achieve isostatic compensation

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 III. Classification based on timing of formation

❑ Syn-formational: formed at the same time as the

material that will ultimately form the rock

❑ Penecontemporaneous: formed before full

lithification, but after initial deposition

❑ Post-formational: formed after the rock has fully

formed, as a consequence of phenomena not related to
the immediate environment of rock formation

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IV. Classification based on the process of formation,
that is, the deformation mechanism

❑ Fracturing: related to development or coalescence of cracks in rock

❑ Frictional sliding: related to the slip of one body of rock past another,
or of grains past one another, both of which are resisted by friction

❑ Plasticity: resulting from deformation by the internal flow of crystals

without loss of cohesion, or by non-frictional sliding of crystals past
one another

❑ Diffusion: resulting from material transport either solid-state or

assisted by a fluid (dissolution)

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V. Classification based on the mesoscopic cohesiveness during
deformation
❑ Brittle: formed by loss of cohesion across a mesoscopic discrete
surface
❑ Ductile: formed without loss of cohesion across a mesoscopic
discrete surface
❑ Brittle/ductile: involving both brittle and ductile aspects

VI. Classification based on the strain significance, in which a

reference frame, usually the Earth’s surface, is defined
❑ Contractional: resulting in shortening of aregion
❑ Extensional: resulting in extension of a region
❑ Strike-slip: resulting from movement without either shortening or
extension

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 VII. Classification based on the distribution of deformation in
a volume of rock

❑ Continuous: occurs through the rock body at all scales

❑ Penetrative: occurs throughout the rock body, at the scale of

observation; up close, there may be spaces between the structures

❑ Localized: continuous or penetrative structure occurs only within a

definable region

❑ Discrete: structure occurs as an isolated feature

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Course Aim/Rationale:
◼ The course aims to provide students with:
❑ the basic concepts of deformation of rocks, and of the
mechanisms and causes of deformation;
❑ to familiarize students with how to appreciate, describe and
record geological structures in the field;
❑ to enable students how to evaluate, analyze and interpret
structural data and incorporate it into regional synthesis of
an area.
❑ as a complement to the Practical Structural Geology and
Field Geology and Report Writing courses as well as a
basis for the Tectonics and Mapping courses
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Learning Outcomes:
◼ On completing the course students will have the
basic knowledge on:
❑ rock deformation and rock mechanics, have the
necessary skill to recognize, describe and analyze rock
structures, and be familiar with the main concept of
plate tectonics.

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Assignment
◼ What are primary geological structures?
◼ Classify, List and describe Primary structures
with sketches if necessary?

N.B
◼ It should be done in per groups
◼ It should not be more than two pages.
◼ there will be oral exam for the assignment (everybody
should understand what he/she submitted)
◼ 15 minute PowerPoint presentation for each group

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Thank you for your....

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