Research Methodology and IPR

M ODULE 1
OVERVIEW OF RE SEARCH
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Research
Introduction to Research
Meaning of Research:
❖Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In
fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
❖ The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
❖In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research.
 1. gain familiarity
2. portray characyeristics of a particular stuation, individual or group
3. determining freq of occurance of an event
4. hypothesis testing

Objectives Of Research
Objectives Of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in
view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies).
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with
this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).
4. To test a hypothesis developed for a research topic (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies)
 1. to get a research degree
2. desire to face chalange of solving problems
3. joy of doing some creative work
4. service to society
5. get respectability

Motivation In Research
Motivation In Research:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability
 Research encourages questioning and inquiry, which leads to new ideas and inventions.
It develops scientific thinking, logical reasoning, and organized thinking.
Research plays an important role in business and economic development.
Government policies and budgets are based on research about people’s needs and available resources.
Research helps social scientists understand social problems and find their solutions.

Significance of Research
o “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”.
oResearch inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organisation.
oThe role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to
the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
oResearch provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs
oResearch is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.
 1. to students of phd
2. professional in research methodology as income
3. literary man and woman for creative work
4. philosophers and thinkers
5. analyst

Significance of Research
The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Research Methods versus Methodology
❖ Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research.
There are basically three types of methods in Research:
✓ Library Research Data collection
LFL
✓Field Research establishing relationships using statistical methods

✓Laboratory Research evaluating acuracy of research

Research Methods versus Methodology
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive
at the required solution.
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data.
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research Methods versus Methodology
 It does not only include the methods used, but also:
Research methodology is the overall system or science of doing research properly.
It explains how research should be done scientifically. Why a particular method is chosen
Why other methods are not chosen
The logic behind the methods

Research Methods versus Methodology

❖ Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
❖Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but
also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others
so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by
others.

Methodology = Why and how research is done

Methods = The actual tools and techniques used
Types of Research
❖ Descriptive v/s Analytical
❖Applied(Action) vs. Fundamental(Basic or pure)
DA
AF
❖Quantitative vs. Qualitative QQ
CE
❖Conceptual vs. Empirical
Descriptive research is used to describe what is happening or what has already happened.
It mainly involves surveys, observations, and fact-finding studies. Analytical research is used to analyze and explain existing information.
In this type of research, the researcher does not change or control any variables. Here, the researcher studies already available data and critically examines it to
They only collect data and report facts as they exist. find reasons, relationships, and patterns.
It is also called Ex-post facto research, which means “after the fact” study. It focuses on why and how something happens rather than just what happened.

Types Of Research
❖ Descriptive v/s Analytical : Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present.
❖In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto ( after the fact)
research for descriptive research studies.
establishing relationships using statistical methods

❖The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables. he
can only report what has happened or what is happening.
❖In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Examining the fluctuations of U. S. international trade balance during 1974-1995 is an example of
descriptive research;
while explaining why and how U.S. trade balance move in a particular way over time is an example
of analytical research.
Fundamental research is done to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge.
It focuses on developing theories and general ideas. Applied research is done to solve a specific and practical problem faced by society
It does not try to solve any immediate practical problem. , industries, or businesses.
It focuses on finding immediate solutions.

Types Of Research
Applied(Action) vs. Fundamental(Basic or pure): Research can either be applied (or action)
research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Fundamental research is concerned with the formulation of the theory. “ Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake”.
Example : Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

Fundamental research = knowledge for understanding

Applied research = knowledge for solving problems

Types Of Research
Applied vs. Fundamental: Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.
Example: Investigating if sleeping rooms in a work environment can contribute to greater
productivity
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic (fundamental) research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge.
Conceptual research deals with ideas, concepts, and theories.
It is mainly used to develop new ideas or explain existing theories. Empirical research is based on real data, experiments, and observations.
It does not involve experiments or data collection. It involves collecting information from the real world to prove or test ideas.

Types Of Research
Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
A philosopher might explore various theories of justice, comparing and contrasting ideas from
different thinkers.
Example: Sir Issac Newton. He observed his surroundings to conceptualize and develop
theories about gravitation and motion
Empirical research is based on real-life experience, observation, and experiments.
It uses actual data to find answers.
The results can be checked and proved by observation or experiments.

Types Of Research
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call
it as experimental type of research.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or
guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove
his hypothesis.
Quantitative research deals with numbers and measurements.
It is used when things can be counted or measured. Qualitative research deals with feelings, opinions, and behaviour.
It focuses on how much, how many, or how often. It focuses on why people think or feel in a certain way.
It is mainly used in behavioural and social sciences.

Types Of Research
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
Examples: Measuring the effect of a new drug on blood pressure, analyzing customer satisfaction
scores etc.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover
the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
For example : research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Types of Research
Some other type of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
❖ Historical Research
❖Field-setting Research Or Laboratory Research
❖Clinical Or Diagnostic Research
❖One-time Research Or Longitudinal Research
Types of Research
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such studies usually go
deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very
deep probing data gathering devices.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or
longitudinal research. In the first case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the second case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
 The quantitative approach deals with numerical data.
The data collected can be measured and analyzed using mathematical methods in a systematic way.

The quantitative approach has three types:

Inferential, Experimental, and Simulation.

Research Approaches
❑ The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two
basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.
❑The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
❑This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research.
❑The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a
sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and
it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
The inferential approach is used to study a small group (sample) and use its results to understand the whole population.
In this approach, the researcher has strong control over the research setting.
Some variables are changed intentionally to see their effect on other variables.

In this approach, an artificial or model environment is created.

Data is generated from this model to study how a system behaves under controlled conditions.

Research Approaches
❑ Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables.
❑ Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic
behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.
❑Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form
or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
The qualitative approach focuses on feelings, opinions, and behaviour.
It depends a lot on the researcher’s understanding and interpretation.
The results are not in numerical form and are not analyzed using strict mathematical methods.
Research Approaches
 The main aim of science is to organize facts in a systematic way.
Research means carefully studying a situation to understand its nature, reasons, and effects. The scientific method helps achieve this by using:
This study may be done through experiments or by observing things as they happen. Observation
Experimentation
Logical thinking
In short, the scientific method is a step-by-step logical process
used to test ideas and find true results through observation and experiments.

Research and Scientific Method

❖ For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific
method. The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
❖ Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the
reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur.
❖The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method
attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from
accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.
❖Scientific method is a specific logical sequence within methodology used to test hypotheses
through observation and experimentation.
It is based on real evidence and observations.
It uses proper concepts and ideas to study problems.
It focuses only on facts, not personal opinions.
It follows ethical neutrality, meaning it aims to give correct and unbiased results.
It gives probable predictions (not exact, but based on chances).
Its methods are open to everyone for checking and repeating the study.
It aims to develop general rules and scientific theories.

Research and Scientific Method

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic aspects which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence.
2. It utilizes relevant concepts.
3. It is committed to only objective considerations.
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects.
5. It results into probabilistic predictions
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Steps in Research Process
(1) formulating the research problem.
(2) Extensive literature survey.
(3) Developing The Hypothesis
(4) Preparing The Research Design
(5) Determining Sample Design
(6) Collecting The Data
(7) Execution Of The Project
(8) Analysis Of Data
(9) Hypothesis Testing
(10) Generalisations And Interpretation
(11) Preparation Of The Report Or Presentation Of The Results
Steps in Research Process

F – Feedback
FF – Feed Forward
 The first step in research is clearly defining the problem.
It involves two main steps:
1. Understanding the problem properly
2. Rewriting it in clear and meaningful terms
The best way to understand the problem is by discussing it with
teachers, guides, or experts.

Steps in Research Process In colleges, a researcher usually takes help from a guide who has
experience in research.

The researcher should also study previous books, articles, and

research papers to understand the topic better.
1) Formulating the research problem. These include:
Conceptual literature (theories and ideas)
Empirical literature (previous similar studies)
❖Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding
the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view.
❖The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter.
❖ In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an
experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
❖The researcher may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning the
concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which
are similar to the one proposed.
Steps in Research Process
❖ The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials
are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own
research problem in a meaningful context.
❖The task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in
the entire research process.
By reviewing earlier studies and literature, the researcher gets to know
what data and information are already available.
This helps in clearly defining and finalizing the research problem.

Formulating the research problem is the most important step in the

whole research process because all other steps depend on it.
After deciding the research problem, the researcher should write a short summary of the topic.
For Ph.D. students, this summary (called synopsis) must be submitted for approval. The researcher should use:
Next, the researcher must study a lot of existing books, journals, research papers, reports, and articles related to the topic. Research journals
This is called a literature survey.
Conference papers

Steps in Research Process Government reports

Books and previous studies

2) Extensive literature survey:

❖ Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is
compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the
topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.
❖At this point of time the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected
with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
❖Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one
source will lead to another.
❖The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage
Studying earlier similar research helps in understanding the topic better and avoiding mistakes.
A good library is very useful at this stage.
 After studying the literature, the researcher should clearly write the hypothesis (a possible answer or guess to the research problem).

Steps in Research Process

(3) Developing The Hypothesis
❖ After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses.
❖The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track.
❖ It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facts of the problem. It
also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
The hypothesis:

Guides the researcher in the right direction

Limits the scope of study so the research does not go out of track

Sharpens thinking and focuses on important facts

Helps decide what data is needed and how it should be analyzed

Steps in Research Process
How does one go about developing working hypotheses?
The answer is by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem
After clearly defining the research problem, the researcher must prepare a research design.
A research design is the basic plan or structure of how the research will be carried out. Research purposes are of four types:

Its main purpose is to collect correct and useful data while saving time, effort, and money. Exploration – to find new ideas or information

The type of research design depends on the purpose of the study. EDDE Description – to describe what is happening

Diagnosis – to find the causes of a problem

Steps in Research Process Experimentation – to test ideas by experiments

(4) Preparing The Research Design

❖ The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms; the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design. i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted.
❖In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
❖But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research
purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
 While preparing a research design, the researcher should consider:

How the information will be collected

Skills and availability of the researcher and team

How the selected methods will be organized and why they are chosen

Steps in Research Process Time available to complete the research

Money or funds available for the research

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) The means of obtaining the information
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
(iii)Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection
(iv) The time available for research
(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
 Steps in Research Process
(5) Determining Sample Design
❖ The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design.
❖ In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
❖Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
The researcher must decide how to select the sample from the whole population.
This plan of selecting a sample is called the sample design.

A sample design is decided before collecting any data.

There are two main types of samples:

Probability samples – where every member has a chance to be selected

Non-probability samples – where every member does not have an equal chanc
Steps in Research Process
❖ Probability samples – Each sample has equal chance of getting selected. It includes random
selection.
❖Non – probability samples - Nonprobability sampling is a form of sampling that does not
utilize random sampling techniques where the probability of getting any particular sample
may be calculated.
❖Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based
on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
 Steps in Research Process
Sampling

Probability Sampling Non - Probability Sampling

Systematic sampling stratified sampling

quota
convenience judgement
sampling
sampling sampling
techniques
cluster/area sampling
In systematic sampling, every fixed unit is selected from a list or area.
For example: In cluster sampling, the whole population is divided into small groups called clusters.
Then, some clusters are randomly selected, and all members in those clusters are studied.
Every 10th house Here, groups are selected, not individuals.
Every 15th name in a list
The starting point is usually chosen randomly to keep the sample fair.

Steps in Research Process

Area sampling is a type of cluster sampling based on geographical areas.
i) Systematic sampling: The whole area is divided into small non-overlapping regions, and some regions are randomly chosen.
All people in the selected areas are included in the study.
❖ In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on a list,
every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as
systematic sampling.
❖ An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
ii) Cluster sampling and Area sampling:
❖ Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers divide a large
population into smaller groups known as clusters. They then randomly select among these
clusters to form a sample.
❖Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
In stratified sampling, the whole population is divided into small groups called strata based on some common feature (like age, class, gender, etc.).
Then, samples are taken from each group, so every group is properly represented.

Steps in Research Process

❖ Area Sampling:
❖Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one.
❖ Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping
areas, generally called geographical clusters, then some of these smaller areas are randomly
selected.
❖For instance, if a company has branches in various cities and you want to study employee
satisfaction, you could randomly select a few branches and then survey all employees within
those branches.
❖Stratified Sampling:
❖In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping sub
populations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.
 If a city has 1,000 high school students divided into:

250 in 9th grade

250 in 10th grade

Steps in Research Process 250 in 11th grade

250 in 12th grade

The researcher may choose 25 students from each grade.

Stratified Sampling Example : This ensures that all grades are equally included in the sample.

❖ Imagine a researcher wants to study the academic performance of high school students in a
city. The population is divided into strata based on grade levels: 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th
grades.
❖If the total number of students is 1,000, with 250 students in each grade, the researcher
might randomly select 25 students from each grade. This way, each grade is equally
represented in the sample.
 Convenience sampling is a method where the researcher selects people who are easy to reach and easily available.
The sample is chosen for convenience, not randomly from the whole population.

It is used when quick and easy data collection is needed.

Steps in Research Process

❖ Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method where
researchers select participants based on their easy accessibility and availability.
❖This means that the sample is chosen from a group that is convenient for the researcher to
reach, rather than being randomly selected from the entire population.
❖When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called convenience sampling.
❖Example: A company wants to gather feedback on a new product. Researchers stand in a
busy shopping mall and ask passersby to participate in a quick survey. This method is
convenient because the researchers can quickly gather data from a large number of people
who are easily accessible.
A company stands in a shopping mall and asks people nearby to give feedback on a new product.
These people are chosen because they are easy to approach.
 In judgement sampling, the researcher uses his own judgement to choose people who he feels are the best representatives of the population.
In quota sampling, the population is divided into different groups based on characteristics like age, gender, or location.
The researcher fixes a number (quota) for each group and selects people until that number is reached.
Example:

Steps in Research Process If a survey needs:

50 males
50 females
The researcher will select people until each quota is completed.
❖ Judgement Sampling: In judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for
selecting items which he considers as representative of the population.
❖For example, a judgement sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a
new method of teaching.
❖Quota sampling techniques: Quota sampling is a method used by researchers to select
participants from a population based on specific characteristics or demographics.
Example:
Divide the Population: Researchers divide the entire population into mutually exclusive
subgroups (called strata). These subgroups might be based on age, gender, location, or other
relevant factors.
For each subgroup, the researcher sets a quota (a specific number of participants). Researchers
then recruit individuals from each subgroup until the quotas are met.
In real-life research, the available data is often not enough, so new data must be collected.

There are different ways to collect data depending on time, money, and resources available.
Primary data can be collected in two main ways:
Through experiments
Through surveys

Steps in Research Process

(6) Collecting The Data:
In dealing with any real-life problem, it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and
hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context
of money costs, time and other resources.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the
help of which he examines the truth.
Steps in Research Process
But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
i) By Observation
ii) Through Personal Interview
iii) Through Telephone Interviews
iv) By mailing of questionnaires
v) Through schedules
 In this method, the researcher collects information by directly observing people or situations.
No questions are asked.
It shows what is happening now, but gives limited information and is costly.

Steps in Research Process

i) By Observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to
what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behavior or future
intentions or attitudes of respondents.
This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is
also very limited. The researcher asks fixed and prepared questions face-to-face to the respondents and records their answers.

ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to
a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to
be accomplished in a very limited time The researcher collects information by calling people on the phone.
It is useful when data must be collected quickly, especially in industrial surveys.
 In this method, questionnaires are sent by post or email to respondents.
Respondents fill them and send them back.
It is widely used in business and economic surveys.
The questionnaire must be prepared carefully to get correct information.

Steps in Research Process

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with
each other if this method of survey is adopted.
Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the
same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective
in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up
the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents.
In this method, trained workers called enumerators are sent to respondents.
They ask questions and fill the answers in a schedule (form) themselves.
This helps in collecting accurate and complete data.
 This is the stage where the research work is actually carried out.

The researcher must make sure that:

The project is done properly and on time

Interviewers are correctly selected and trained

Steps in Research Process They are given clear instructions about their work
Regular checks are done to ensure they are working honestly
and correctly
The data collected follows fixed accuracy standards

(7) Execution of the project:

❖ Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time.
❖If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper
selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of
instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.
❖Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their
assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
❖The steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the
collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy
After collecting data, the next step is to analyze it properly to find meaningful results.
Data analysis includes the following steps:

Steps in Research Process

(8) Analysis of data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such
as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The data is divided into different groups or variables for easy study.
Example: age groups, income levels, satisfaction levels, etc.

1. Establishment of Categories: This involves defining the different categories or variables that
will be used to classify the data. For example, if you’re analyzing survey responses, categories
might include age groups, income levels, or satisfaction ratings.
2. Coding: Once categories are established, raw data is coded or assigned to these categories.
This step helps in organizing the data systematically. For instance, responses like “very
satisfied” might be coded as “5”, “satisfied” as “4”, and so on.
Here, data is converted into numbers or symbols to make it easier to analyze.
Example:

Very satisfied = 5

Satisfied = 4
 Tabulation

Steps in Research Process The coded data is arranged in tables.

This helps to clearly see patterns and trends.

3. Tabulation: This step involves summarizing the coded data into tables. Tabulation helps in
organizing the data in a way that makes it easier to identify patterns and trends. For example,
you might create a table showing the number of respondents in each satisfaction category.
4. Drawing Statistical Inferences: Finally, statistical methods are applied to the tabulated data
to draw conclusions. This might involve calculating averages, testing hypotheses, or identifying
correlations and visualizing the data in the form of graphs and charts.

Drawing Statistical Inferences

Statistical methods are used to draw conclusions.

This may include finding averages, relationships, testing hypotheses, and making charts or graphs.
9. After analyzing the data, the researcher tests the hypothesis.
He checks: 10. When a hypothesis is proved true many times, the researcher can make general rules or theories.
Do the collected facts support the hypothesis? This process is called generalisation.
Or are they against it?
Statistical tests are used to decide this. The real value of research lies in creating such general rules that can be used in other situations.
The result will be either
Accept the hypothesis, or Other researchers can use these theories to test them in new conditions and see if they work there too.

Steps in Research Process

Reject the hypothesis

(9) Hypothesis Testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier.
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which
should be answered while testing hypotheses.
The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature
and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it.
10) Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real
value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.
Once the generalized theories are obtained, other researchers can use these theories for their research.
Generalization theories refer to the process of applying learned knowledge or theories to new situations
and check whether they work in different situations or not.
The final step of research is writing the report or thesis. Preliminary Pages

The researcher must carefully write what work was done and what results were found. Title and date
Acknowledgements
Foreword
A research report has three main parts: Table of contents
List of tables
Steps in Research Process List of graphs and charts

Main Text
Contains the full research work, data, analysis, and findings
11) Preparation of the report or the thesis: End Matter
Contains references, appendices, etc.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of
report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages.
(ii) the main text.
(iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
Introduction Introduction Introduction

States the purpose of the research States the purpose of the research States the purpose of the research

Explains the method used Explains the method used Explains the method used

Mentions the scope and limitations of the study Mentions the scope and limitations of the study Mentions the scope and limitations of the study

Steps in Research Process Conclusion

Gives the final summary of results

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
Clearly states what was learned from the research

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be added for technical details and extra data.1. not overdone
A bibliography (list of books, journals, reports used) must also be included. 2. not controversial topic
The report should be written in simple, clear, and objective language. 3. not too narrow or too vague
Avoid vague words like “it seems” or “there may be”. 4. topic familiarity and feasible
Charts and diagrams should be used only when they help explain the information clearly.5. do a pre
Confidence limits (accuracy levels) should be mentioned, and any problems faced during research should also be stated.

Steps in Research Process

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the
end.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.
Criteria of Good Research
We can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic SLER

2. Good research is logical

3. Good research is empirical
4. Good research is replicable
Criteria of Good Research
We can state the qualities of a good research as under: Good research follows proper steps in a fixed order.
It does not depend on guessing, but uses planned and organized methods.
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly
does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
•Inductive reasoning is used to develop new theories, whereas deductive reasoning is used to
test existing theories and select best techniques for the implementation.
•In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
Good research uses logical thinking.
It follows reasoning methods:
Inductive – used to create new theories
Deductive – used to test existing theories
Logical thinking helps in making correct decisions.
Criteria of Good Research
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results. Good research is based on real facts, observations, and experiments.
Its conclusions come from clear and provable evidence, not assumptions.

Empirical research is defined as any study whose conclusions are exclusively derived from
concrete, verifiable evidence. The term empirical basically means that it is guided by
scientific experimentation and/or evidence.
Concrete evidence refers to specific proofs based on facts or on observations.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
A research study is replicable (or repeatable) when the entire research process is conducted
again, using the same methods but new data, and still yields the same results. This shows that
the results of the original study are reliable.
Good research can be repeated by others.
If the same method gives the same result again, the research is reliable.
Chapter 2 - Defining the Research Problem
 A research problem means a difficulty or issue that a researcher wants to study and find a solution for.
It can be related to theory or real-life situations.

Defining the Research Problem

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
❖ A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.
❖Usually, we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
There is a person, group, or organization that is facing the problem.
They are in a particular situation or environment.
i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the
problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be, occupies
an environment, say ‘N’.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2 , to be pursued.

There are two or more possible ways (choices) to solve the problem, and it is not clear which one is best.
Defining the Research Problem
There must be at least two possible results (outcomes) of the actions, and one result should be better than the other.
This means the researcher must have a clear objective or goal.

(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2 , of the course of action, of
which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be at
least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
iv) The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the objective, but
they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter
The different actions must have different chances of success.
If all actions give the same result, then there is no real problem to study.
A research problem has the following parts:
There must be a person, group, or organization facing a difficulty.
There must be a goal or objective to achieve.
There must be two or more possible ways (choices) to reach that goal.
The researcher must be confused about which choice is best, so research is needed to find the best one.
The problem must belong to a specific situation or environment.

Defining the Research Problem

We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have
a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
 1. not overdone
2. not controversial topic
3. not too narrow or too vague
4. topic familiarity and feasible
5. do a preliminary study

Selecting The Problem 6. consider importance of topic,cost and time

❖ The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. Help may be taken
from a research guide in this connection. Thus, a research guide can at the most only help a
researcher choose a subject.
❖However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task
to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
Selecting The Problem Choose a topic that is familiar, practical, and possible to study.
The required books, data, and guidance should be easily available.

(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. For this purpose, a researcher
should contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in research.
He may as well-read articles published in current literature available on the subject and may
think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of
other problems. Do a small preliminary study to check whether the research is possible, especially if the field is new.

v) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has
already been done.
But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well-
developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken.
Selecting The Problem
vi) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a
problem. Consider importance of the topic, your knowledge, cost, and time available before finalizing the topic.
In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself
the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in
research as subjects?
A well-defined problem makes research easy and successful. When the problem is clearly defined, the researcher can easily decide:
An unclear problem creates confusion and difficulties. What data should be collected
Which data is important
What relationships should be studied
Which methods and techniques should be used

Necessity Of Defining The Problem

❖ Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. A proper
definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-
defined problem may create hurdles.
❖Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and
need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the
purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan
his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been
well defined.
❖Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the
highest importance.

So, properly defining the research problem is the most important step before starting any research.
Technique Involved In Defining A Problem
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must
in no case be accomplished hurriedly:
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one
after the other:
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way. SUSDR

(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem.

(iii) Surveying the available literature.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
First, the problem should be written in a broad and simple form based on practical or academic interest.
The researcher must study the topic properly.
In social research, a small field survey (pilot survey) may be done.
The problem can be framed with the help of a guide or expert.
Any confusion in the general problem must be removed by careful thinking.

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

(i) Statement of the problem in a general way
First of all, the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest.
❖ For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
❖ In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such
the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot
survey.
❖ Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide
or the subject expert in accomplishing this task.
❖The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be
resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem.
 The researcher must clearly understand:

Why the problem exists

What its purpose is

He should discuss it with people who know the problem well.

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem.
❖ The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best
way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find
out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view.
❖ If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those
points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem.
❖For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into
discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other
problems.
 The researcher should study books, reports, journals, and past research related to the topic.
This helps to know:

What data already exists

What gaps are there
What methods can be used

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

(iii) Surveying the available literature:
All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and
examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field,
reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in
reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems.
This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational
purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well
as the technique that might be used.
This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether
the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other.
 The researcher should discuss the problem with experienced people and colleagues.
This gives new ideas, better methods, and useful suggestions.

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions:
Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be
developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey.
People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects
of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher.
Discussions with such persons can be helpful with the general approach to the given problem,
techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
 Finally, the problem is rewritten clearly and specifically so it can be easily studied.
This clear form helps in forming hypotheses and planning research properly.

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

(v) Rephrasing the research problem:
Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition.
Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which
the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken
place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem
into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.
Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible
so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working
hypotheses.
Thankyou