Chapter 1- General Research Orientations

-Chapters aim is to show distinction between commonly drawn research between

quantitative and qualitative approaches
-Hypothesis derived from them are tested by gathering data (Deductive method) or
data gathering is used to create a theory (inductive)
-Epistemological issues,whether a natural science is suitable for study of the social
world
-Ontological issues, whether social world should be regarded as a reality external to
individuals over which they have no control, or as something that social actors
fashion into their personal realities

-Most social research is done may also be affected by what is motivating the
researcher to conduct the study
-Standpoint theory was developed by Smith

-2 main connections between theory and research, 1. The form of the theory, and 2.
The relationship between data and theory
-3 components of a theory, 1. Definitions, Descriptions, Relational statements which
connect two or more variables
-Different types of theories, theories of middle range and grand theories. Middle
range is limited in scope, and can be tested directly by gathering empirical evidence.
Grand theories are general and abstract, include structural-functionalism, symbolic
interactionism, critical theory,post-structuralism, feminism and so on

-Deductive approach -> Theory into Observations/Findings (Most common approach)

-Inductive approach -> Observations/Findings into Theory
-Strategy of moving back and forth between data and theory is iterative, practice of
deriving theories from qualitative data is sometimes called grounded theory

-Positivism is [Link] phenomena confirmed by senses can be accepted as

knowledge, principle of empiricism. 2. A key purpose of theory is to generate
hypothesis (Deduction) 3. Knowledge can also be arrived at through gathering facts
(induction), 4. Science must be value-free, no matter the data always reach the
same conclusions, intersubjectivity. 5. There is a clear distinction between scientific
statements

-Interpretivism is a critique of positivism, to gain access to the common-sense

thinking of the people and then understand people's actions and their social world
from the point of view of the actors.
-Symbolic interactions is an example of sociological perspective that falls under
interpretivism. George Herbert Mead founder, individual self concepts emerges
through an appreciation of the perception of others

-Marxists argue that those who own the means of production deceive, constrain and
exploit the weak

Participatory action research (PAR)- Participants first reflect on social problems and
how it might be studied and rectified, then use the results of that process as the
basis for social action. Once action has been taken, participants discuss the
consequences of the action and how those consequences might be used to generate
more knowledge and inform further action. In this way the social problem is dealt
with by people directly affected by it, in collaboration with others.

-Empiricism holds that only phenomena confirmed by the senses can be accepted as
knowledge

-Do social phenomena have an objective reality independent of our perceptions? Or

is what passes for reality a set of mental constructions if you answer yes you are an
objectivist. If no you are an constructionist

-Soft constructionism is the ontological position holds to the belief that there maybe
an objective social reality, but many of our ideas do not reflect it

-Ontology is the branch of philosophy concerned with whether the social world is
akin to the physical world
-Social research branches out to theory, issues related to the research question,
epistemology, values, politics, and ontology

-A good research question, be as clear as possible, be researchable, relate in some

way to existing studies that suggest how your question may be approached, be
linked to the other research questions in the study, be neither too broad nor too
narrow

-When social scientists disclose their aims, expectations, hopes and attitudes to their
readers this is reflexivity, negotiated access to conduct research within public
institutions` is referred to as the research bargain
Chapter 9- The Nature of Qualitative Research

Qualitative analysis uses mainly words, and researchers tend to produce inductive,
constructivist and interpretivist studies
-​ Qualitative research usually starts with field research and then develops into theories
and concepts from it
-​ Normally interpretivist seeks to understand the social world through other people's
interpretations of it
-​ Often constructionist in that they understand social life to be an outcome of
interactions and negotiations between individuals
-​ Approach is naturalistic in that qualitative researchers try to understand social life in
its natural setting as people reflect on and go about their everyday lives

Main Steps in qualitative Research-

1.​ General research questions
2.​ Selecting relevant sites and participants
3.​ Collection of relevant data
4.​ Interpretation of Data
5.​ Conceptual and theoretical work
5a. Tighter specification of the research question
5b. Collection of further data- for instance once a particular interpretation has
been made, further data may be collected to determine whether the
interpretation is valid, strategy is frequently described as iterative and is a
defining characteristic of grounded theory
6.​ Writing up findings / conclusions

Hochschild's concept of emotional labour- labour that requires one to induce or

suppress feelings in order to sustain the outward countenance that produces the
proper state of mind in others

2 primary criteria for assessing a qualitative study: trustworthiness and authenticity,

Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria:
-​ Credibility- getting feedback on the study from participant leading to
respondent validation, member validation
-​ Transferability- Researchers are encouraged to produce what Geertz called
thick description: rich, detailed accounts of groups cultures or peoples
experiences, thick descriptions provide others with the database they need in
order to assess the possible transferability of findings to other milieus
-​ Dependability- Researches should keep complete records of all phases of the
research process and ensure that the records are accessible
-​ Confirmability- researcher has acted in good faith, no biases, etc.
Qualitative researchers try to view the social world through the eyes of the people
they study. Achieve a sense of intimate familiarity means “gaining an in-depth
knowledge of the research participants, their setting and their situations and actions.
1.​ Face to face interaction is the fullest condition of participating in the mind of
another human being
2.​ You must participate in the mind of another human being to acquire social
knowledge.
Main reason of providing descriptive detail is that it permits a contextual
understanding of social behaviour
-​ The life history approach is another form of qualitative research that can be
used to show the process, one of the best known studies of this kind is Lewis
classic study of poor Mexican families, in which he conducted extended taped
interviews with family members to reconstruct their life histories.

The goals of qualitative research is seeing through the eyes of others, bringing out a
sense of process, and having a flexible and unstructured method of inquiry

Critiques of qualitative research- too subjective, difficult to replicate, issues of

generalisation, lack of transparency
Chapter 10- Ethnography and Participant Observation

Ethnography and participant observation require extended involvement in the

activities of people under study. This chapter explores
-​ Problems of gaining access to different settings and ways of overcoming
-​ Whether covert research is practicable, role of key information, functions of
field notes, visual materials and bringing ethnographic studies to an end

Gaining access depends on several things, is setting (public) or closed (private or

restricted)
-​ Covert role in other words to not disclose you are a researcher
-​ Overt- disclose you are a researcher
Three points should be noted
1.​ Open versus closed setting disciniton is not hard and fast
2.​ Overt versus covert
3.​ Preferred choice is an overt role
Covert role in ethnography
-​ Easier assess, less reactivity
-​ Problem of note taking, problem of not being able to use other methods,
anxiety, ethical problems
-​ Get people in organisation to vouch for you people who must grant their
permission for you to gain access are sometimes called gatekeepers
Ongoing access
-​ People will be suspicious, group members will worry that what they say or do
may get back to bosses, sabotage research
3 ways to smooth the path
1.​ Be prepared to adapt how you present yourself
2.​ Don't give people a reason to dislike you
3.​ Help out occasionally with work

Complete participant- covert fully functioning member of a social setting

Participant-as-observer- participates as described above, members of the social
setting are aware that the ethnographer is studying them
Observer as participant- mainly an interviewer or observer and participants
marginally
Complete observer- no interaction with people observed

Field notes- ethnography must jot down their observations

 -​ Write down notes, however brief as soon as possible
-​ Write up full field notes at the end of the day at the very latest
-​ May also use an audio recorder
-​ Notes must be vivid clear and complete
Types of field notes
-​ Mental notes
-​ Jotted notes
-​ Full field notes
Analytic memos focus on bridging the gap between data and concepts,
interpretations and theories that researchers develop to make sense of what they are
observing
Qualitative researchers use visual materials in at least three ways:
1.​ As memory aids in the course of fieldwork
2.​ As sources of data in their own right
3.​ As prompts for discussion by research participants
-​ Realist framework in which the material simply captures an event or setting
Institutional ethnography that explores how institutional discourses relate to people's
everyday experiences with institutions, and how examining institutional relationships
may reveal larger systems of social control and power in a society

Purposive sampling- searching for people who are likely to be a rich source of
information in the study
Snowball sampling- viable contact is used to identify others who may be willing to
provide information for the study
Theoretical sampling- alternative strategy used in order to discover categories and
their properties to suggest the interrelationships into a theory, done to obtain
accurate evidence on distributions of people among categories to be used in
descriptions and verifications

Theoretical saturation- means until no new or relevant data seems to be emerging

regarding a category and the category is well developed in terms of its properties
and dimensions and the relationships among categories are well established and
validated
Chapter 1 Terminology-

Concept: An abstract idea or general notion that represents a phenomenon in

sociological research.
Constructionist: A perspective that views reality as socially constructed,
emphasizing how social processes shape our understanding of the world.
Deductive: A research approach that starts with a theory or hypothesis and tests it
through observation and data collection.
Discourse Analysis: A qualitative research method focusing on the study of
language, communication, and social context.
Empiricism: The view that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience
and observable phenomena.
Epistemological: Relating to the study of knowledge—its nature, origins, and limits.
Ethnographic: A research method involving in-depth observation and participation
in the daily lives of a group to understand their culture and practices.
Gatekeepers: Individuals or entities that control access to information, resources, or
groups in research.
Generalizations: Broad statements or principles derived from specific observations
that apply to wider contexts.
Grounded Theory: A qualitative research method that develops theory inductively
from data collected during the study.
Inductive: A research approach that begins with observations and builds up to the
formulation of theories.
Interpretivism: A research paradigm that emphasizes understanding the subjective
meaning and experiences of social actors.
Intersubjectivity: The shared understanding between individuals in social
interactions.
Objectivist: A perspective that views social phenomena as having an independent
existence, unaffected by the observer’s interpretation.
Official Statistics: Quantitative data collected and published by government
agencies or other official organizations.
Ontological: Relating to the nature of being or existence, especially in the context of
the social world.
Participant Observation: A qualitative research method where the researcher
immerses themselves in the environment they are studying to observe behaviors and
interactions.
Positivism: A scientific approach to sociology that relies on observable, empirical
evidence and often emphasizes quantitative methods.
Qualitative: Research that focuses on exploring and understanding the meaning
and experiences of social phenomena through non-numerical data.
Quantitative: Research that involves numerical data and statistical analysis to
understand patterns and relationships in social phenomena.
Reflexivity: The process of reflecting on one’s role, biases, and influence as a
researcher in the study.
Semi-Structured Interviews: A qualitative research method that uses a flexible
guide of questions to explore topics in-depth with participants.
Symbolic Interactionism: A sociological perspective that examines how individuals
interact and give meaning to symbols, language, and actions in society.
Validity: The extent to which a research method accurately measures what it intends
to measure.
Variables: Characteristics or properties that can vary among individuals or groups
and are measurable in research.

Chapter 9 definitions-

Concepts: Abstract ideas or theoretical constructs used to categorize and interpret

aspects of the social world.
Constructionist: A perspective emphasizing that social phenomena and knowledge
are constructed through human interaction and interpretation rather than existing
independently.
Content Analysis: A systematic method of analyzing written, visual, or spoken
material to identify patterns, themes, or meanings.
Conversation Analysis: A qualitative approach for studying the structure and
patterns of social interactions, particularly in everyday communication.
Critical Discourse Analysis: A method of examining how language and discourse
shape and are shaped by power dynamics in society.
Discourse: Ways of speaking or writing that construct and convey social meaning,
often tied to power and ideology.
Grounded Theory: A method of qualitative research aimed at generating theory
from systematic data collection and analysis.
Inductive: A research approach where theories are developed based on observed
data, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations.
Interpretivist: A perspective focusing on understanding the subjective meanings
and experiences of individuals in their social context.
Member Validation: A process where research findings are shared with participants
to ensure their perspectives have been accurately represented.
Naturalistic: A research approach that studies phenomena in their natural settings,
without manipulating the environment.
Postal Questionnaires: Surveys sent and returned through the mail, often used to
collect qualitative or quantitative data.
Qualitative: Research focused on exploring subjective experiences, meanings, and
social processes rather than numerical data.
Quantitative: Research emphasizing numerical measurement and statistical
analysis of data to identify patterns and relationships.
Respondent Validation: Another term for member validation, ensuring participants'
views align with the research interpretation.
"Sensitizing" Concepts: Initial ideas or frameworks that guide qualitative research
while remaining open to new findings during the study.
Structured Interviewing: A method where the interviewer asks a set list of
standardized questions, often limiting flexibility in responses.
Structured Observation: A systematic method for recording and categorizing
observed behaviors or events in a social setting.
Texts: Written or visual materials analyzed for their content, structure, or meaning in
qualitative research.
Thick Description: A detailed account of social actions and their context, aiming to
convey deeper cultural and social meanings.
Trustworthiness: The credibility, reliability, and rigor of qualitative research findings,
ensuring their validity and authenticity.
Unstructured Interviewing: An open-ended and flexible interviewing method that
allows participants to guide the conversation based on their experiences and
insights.

Chapter 10 definitions-

Concept: An abstract idea or general notion that sociologists use to describe and
analyze social phenomena.
Ethnography: A qualitative research method focused on studying people and
cultures in their natural settings, often through participant observation and detailed
field notes.
Field Notes: Detailed written accounts and observations made by a researcher
during or immediately after their qualitative research, often used to record insights
and details from ethnographic studies.
Gatekeepers: Individuals or groups who control access to a particular community,
setting, or population being studied in qualitative research.
Institutional Ethnography: A research method that investigates how people's
everyday experiences are shaped by institutional processes and structures.
Key Informants: Individuals within a group or community who provide valuable
insights and information to researchers due to their knowledge, role, or experience.
Participant Observation: A qualitative research technique where the researcher
immerses themselves in the community or group being studied, observing and
sometimes participating in activities to gain a deeper understanding.
Participatory Action Research: A research approach that involves collaboration
between researchers and participants to address issues and create change,
emphasizing shared decision-making and action.
Purposive Sampling: A non-random sampling method in which participants are
selected based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the research study.
Realist: In qualitative sociology, this often refers to a perspective that seeks to
represent the social world as it is, focusing on observable phenomena and their
underlying structures.
Reflexive: A practice in qualitative research where the researcher critically reflects
on their own role, biases, and influence on the research process.
Snowball Sampling: A non-probability sampling technique where existing study
participants recruit future participants from their acquaintances, creating a
chain-referral process.
Theoretical Saturation: The point in qualitative research when no new themes,
concepts, or insights are emerging from the data, indicating that data collection can
be concluded.