REVIEW ARTICLE 85

Botanical Insecticides in Plant

Protection

Martina GRDIŠA 1
Kristina GRŠIĆ 2 ( )

Summary
Botanical insecticides are natural compounds with insecticidal properties and their
use in crop protection is as old as agricultural practice. Although they have been in
use for over one hundred years, the advent of synthetic insecticides has unfortunately
displaced their use today. Due to fast action, low cost, easy application and efficiency
against a wide range of harmful species, synthetic insecticides have become an
important part of pest management in modern agricultural systems. However, after
decades of use, their negative side effects, such as toxicity to humans and animals,
environmental contamination, and toxicity to non-target insects have become
apparent and interest in less hazardous alternatives of pest control is therefore being
renewed. Plant species with known insecticidal actions are being promoted and
research is being conducted to find new sources of botanical insecticides. The most
important botanical insecticide is pyrethrin, a secondary metabolite of Dalmatian
pyrethrum, neem, followed by insecticides based on the essential oils, rotenone,
quassia, ryania and sabadilla. They have various chemical properties and modes of
action. However, some general characteristics include fast degradation in sunlight,
air and moisture, and selectivity to non-target insects. Unfortunately, neither of these
insecticides is widely used as a pest control agent but is recognized by organic crop
producers in industrialized countries.

Key words
azadirachtin; botanical insecticides; essential oils; neem; pyrethrin; rotenone

1 Universityof Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Seed Science and Technology

Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
2 Tobacco Institute Zagreb, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
e-mail: kgrsic@[Link]
Received: April 1, 2013 | Accepted: May 31, 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Ms. Valerie-Ann Cherneski for editorial help.

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86 Martina GRDIŠA, Kristina GRŠIĆ

Introduction Botanical insecticides have certain advantages; they do not

Plant pest protection is an important issue for the agricultural persist in the environment, they present a relatively low risk to
community. Before the development of synthetic insecticides, ma- non-target organisms (beneficial predators and parasites) and
terials derived from plants provided means for crop protection. they are relatively nontoxic to mammals (Weinzierl, 2000; Scott
Plant species have the ability to synthesize a variety of secondary et al., 2003). They usually break down rapidly in the environment
metabolites that are not essential for their growth and develop- and are easily metabolized by animals receiving sub-lethal doses
ment (Rosenthal and Berenbaum, 1991), but are important in (Ling, 2003). Today, nearly 200 plants with insecticidal proper-
the protection against predators and microbial pathogens and ties are known, but unfortunately only a few of them have been
interaction of plants with other organisms (Schafer and Wink, properly evaluated (Pavela, 2009). Moreover, botanical insecti-
2009). Many secondary metabolites have insecticidal, repellent cides are not widely used in conventional crop production but
as well as antifeedant activity. Furthermore, they cause repro- they are recognized by organic crop producers in industrialized
duction retardation and act as insect growth regulators (IGR) countries. Reasons for limited commercial development of bo-
(Rice and Coats, 1994; Isman, 2000). tanical insecticides are their relatively slow action, variable ef-
ficiency, lack of persistence and inconsistent availability (Isman,
The use of plant secondary metabolites for the protection of 2008) when compared to synthetic insecticides. Other barriers
crops from insect species likely originated at the same time as to commercialization of botanical insecticides are scarcity of
crop protection itself, thousands of years ago (Thacker, 2002). the natural resource, standardization, quality control and regis-
Crude plant extracts, plant materials or whole plants have been tration (Isman, 1997). Among botanical insecticides, pyrethrin
used for several centuries and were known in tribal or tradi- and neem are the most exploited commercially and the use of
tional cultures around the world (Weinzierl, 2000). The first rotenone is decreasing, while ryania and sabadila are in limited
known written references concerning plant insecticides and their use. Furthermore, insecticides based on plant essential oils are
application against pests date back to approximately 400 B.C. entering the pesticide market (Isman, 2006). This paper provides
from Ancient Rome (Dayan et al., 2009). Botanical insecticides a brief history of botanical insecticides and reviews their chemi-
with long history of traditional use include pyrethrum, neem, cal properties, toxicology, effectiveness and use.
rotenone and sabadilla (Weinzierl, 2000). They have been used
to protect stored commodities or to repel various pests from Pyrethrum
human habitations (Isman & Machial, 2006). Powdered flow-
ers of the Dalmatian pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium / Pyrethrin is the secondary metabolite of Dalmatian pyre-
Trevir./ Sch. Bip) have been traditionally used in Croatian ag- thrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium /Trev./ Schultz Bip.), a per-
riculture and households. Neem has been traditionally used in ennial plant species (Asteraceae) endemic to the East coast of
India, rotenone in East Asia and South America and sabadilla in the Adriatic Sea (Grdiša et al., 2009). It is a mixture of six active
Central and South America. In the nineteenth and early twen- compounds (pyrethrin I and II, cinerin I and II and jasmolin
tieth centuries, through advances in chemistry, better defined I and II), whereas pyrethrin I, cinerin I and jasmolin I are the
plant extracts, such as derris, nicotine or quassia came into use. esters of chrysanthemic acid, and pyrethrin II, cinerin II and
Rotenone isolated from Derris eliptica (Wall.) Benth was intro- jasmolin II are the esters of pyrethric acid (Head, 1973). Typical
duced in 1850 as a plant insecticide (Weinzierl, 2000). It was also pyrethrin extract contains pyrethrins, cinerins and jasmolins in
used as a commercial pesticide, reflecting its original use over the proportions [Link] (Crombie, 1995), with the ratio of pyre-
300 years ago. From 1690, water extracts of tobacco were used thrin I to pyrethrin II being approximately 1.0, although it can
in England to kill garden insects and by the 1890s, the princi- vary between 0.5 and 3.5 in some breeding lines (Bhat, 1995).
pal active compound, nicotine, was identified (Weinzierl, 2000). In the study of Grdiša et al. (2013), the total pyrethrin content
Nicotine and other nicotine compounds were used as contact of natural Dalmatian pyrethrum populations ranged from 0.36
insecticides and fumigants to control aphids, thrips and mites. to 1.30% (dry flower weight; DW), while the pyrethrin I/pyre-
The earliest insecticidal applications of quassia date from 1880 thrin II ratio ranged from 0.64 to 3.33%. Flower heads contain
when it was successfully used against aphids (Pluke et al., 1999). the majority of pyrethrins, while in the other plant parts they
are found in minor quantities (Kolak et al., 1999). In different
The development of synthetic insecticides began in the flower parts the concentration of pyrethrin varies and approxi-
1940’s resulting in the abandonment of botanical insecticides mately 94% of pyrethrin is accumulated in the secretory tissue
in commercial agriculture. The commercial success of synthetic of the achenes (Kiriamiti et al., 2003; Morris et al., 2005), hence
insecticides was due to high efficiency, fast action, ease of use they are protected from photo degradation (Casida, 1980). Minor
and low cost. Twenty years later, numerous negative side effects quantities are found in disc florets (2.0%), ray florets (2.6%) and
of synthetic insecticides in modern agricultural systems have receptacles (2.6%) (Head, 1966). Piretrin I and piretrin II are pre-
been noticed, including the development of insect resistance, dominant and the most active components (Head, 1966; Casida
pesticide food contamination, environmental pollution prob- and Quistad, 1995; Crombie, 1995), while cinerin I, cinerin II
lems, the disruption of natural balance, toxicity to non-target and jasmolin I and II are present in lower concentrations and
organisms, and the most important, negative impact on human characterized with noticeable lower bioactivity (Zong-Mao and
health. Negative side effects of synthetic insecticides have led to Yun-Hao, 1996). Pyrethrin I acts in minutes, and alone is toxic,
the investigation of various alternative measures to convention- while pyrethrin II has a high knock-down effect appearing a few
al pest management practices and the development and use of hours after its application. Insects easily metabolize pyrethrin
natural plant protection agents. II and recover in a few hours (Sawicki and Thain, 1962), how-

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 Botanical Insecticides in Plant Protection 87

ever their combination has an outstanding, wide range effect Neem

on insect species (Winney, 1979). They are contact poisons that Neem insecticides are derived from the tropical and subtropi-
rapidly penetrate into the nervous system. According to Tomlin cal tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (syn. Melia azadirachta L.),
(2000), they bind to sodium channels of nerve cells, prolong- systematically classified in the family Meliaceae. It is commonly
ing their opening and thereby causing the death of the insect. known as neem or Indian lilac (Siddiqui et al., 2004). The neem
Sonderlund (1995) also proved that pyrethrins affect the nervous plant is native to Southern and Southeastern Asia and today it
system of insects; they block nerve junctions and the action of is grown in tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, North and
voltage-sensitive sodium channels, causing a knock-down effect, South America and Australia (Schmutterer, 1990). The principal
paralysis and death (Davies et al., 2007). Pyrethrins are quickly active ingredient in neem is azadirachtin, a tetranortriterpenoid
degraded when exposed to light, air, water and high temperatures limonoid (Mordue and Blackwell, 1993). Azadirachtin is present
(Allan and Miller, 1990) and therefore do not accumulate in food in minor quantities in all parts of the tree but the highest con-
chains and ground water (Cochran, 1995; Jovetić and de Gooijer, centration (0.2-0.6%) is found in the seeds (Govindchari, 1992).
1995) and do not persist in the environment beyond a few weeks The other limonoids, such as meliantriol, salannin, nimbin and
(Todd et al., 2003). Antonious (2004) determined the half-life of nimbidin have been found in traces (Akhtar, 2000) and contribute
pyrethrin I and II in field conditions to be less than two hours. to overall bioactivity (Isman, 2006; Morgan, 2009; Salehzadeh
Crosby (1995) determined that under dark conditions, there is et al., 2002). Azadirachtin has a wide spectrum of actions on
little degradation of pyrethrin over time, whereas in the light, insects such as repellent, antifeedant, insect growth regulatory
rapid degradation from 100% to less than 1% of pyrethrin within (IGR), anti-ovipositional, fecundity, and fitness reducing proper-
five hours has been observed. The pyrethrins are slowly broken ties (Schmutterer, 1990). The IGR effects, manifested in growth
down in water and are therefore toxic for some fish and aquatic and moulting abnormalities, result from: (1) the disruption of the
invertebrates. However, in the presence of microbial communi- endocrine system by blocking the release of neurosecretory pep-
ties, the degradation is expected to be faster through oxidative tides that regulate synthesis and the release of ecydysteroides and
metabolism (Gunasekara, 2004). Due to their high biodegrada- juvenile hormone, and (2) the direct effects of azadirachtin on di-
bility they are safe and environmentally friendly and present an viding cells (Mordue et al., 1993). It is effective against more than
ideal substitute for a synthetic insecticide alternative, but due to 500 insect species (Schmutterer and Singh, 1995) and primarily
their instability, their usage is limited. As an insecticide, pyre- the Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Homoptera and Hemiptera
thrin was registered in 1950 for use in agriculture, households, orders (Sadre et al., 1983). This active compound causes mortal-
public health and on domestic and farm animals. It was then ity and has an antifeedant effect on the Colorado potato beetle
labeled as nontoxic to humans and animals. Such classification (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) (Zehnder and Warthen, 1988).
is no longer allowed, but it remains as one of the safest insecti- In addition, it was found that azadirachtin has antifungal, an-
cides. After more than a century of their use, only a few cases of tibacterial and antiprotozoan activities (Mordue and Blackwell,
human illness, mostly allergic reactions and dermatitis, are as- 1993). They are safe for adults and for the eggs of many pred-
sociated with exposure to pyrethrins, caused by impurities that ators such as Coccinellids (Schmutterer, 1997) and they have
are no longer present in the extracts (Casida, 1980). Oral appli- a minimal effect on some other beneficial insect pollinators
cation of pyrethrins in treating human illnesses has also been (Lowery and Isman, 1995; Naumann et al., 1994). Furthermore,
reported. Their effective use in controlling intestinal worms, in azadirachtin has a low acute toxicity to mammals (Salehzadeh et
doses 10-20 mg per adult and 5-10 mg per child was documented al., 2002; Morgan, 2009), with a LD50 that is more than 5000 mg/
in France from 1930 to 1950 (Glynne-Jones, 2001). In their pure kg in rats (Raizada et al., 2001). The Environmental Protection
state, pyrethrins are moderately toxic to humans (LD50 350-500 Agency (EPA) classifies azadirachtin in toxicity class IV. The
mg/kg) but technical grade pyrethrum is noticeably less toxic residual effects usually last approximately 4-8 days, depending
(LD50 1500 mg/kg) (Casida and Quistad, 1995). Pyrethrins are on the environmental conditions and the plant species treated
widely used in agriculture, horticulture, store products (Silcox (Schmutterer, 1998). Azadirachtin is not persistent in the envi-
and Roth, 1995), households (Kennedy and Hamilton, 1995), in ronment due to fast biodegradation in the sunlight (Boursier et
public health facilities (Greenhill, 2007) and for the control of al., 2011), therefore they are highly suitable for use in integrated
animal pests (Gerberg, 1995). Pyrethrins are used as an agricul- pest management programs (Schmutterer, 1990) and also in or-
tural pre-harvest treatment on forage crops, fruits, vegetables, ganic farming. Today more than 100 commercial neem formu-
ornamental plants, and applied as dust, emulsified substance lations are used worldwide (Khater, 2012).
or spray. They are often used with synergists (e.g., pyperonyl
butoxide), substances which suppress detoxification within the Rotenone
insect, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the insecticide.
They are effective on a wide range of insect species including Rotenone is a natural plant toxin, isoflavonoid, which occurs
mosquitoes, sawfly larvae, caterpillars, leafhoppers, aphids naturally in more than 65 plant species. However, most of the
and beetles (Todd et al., 2003) as well as Culicoides variipen- commercial supplies are isolated from the roots and rhizomes
nis (Coquillett) (Woodward et al., 1985), house flies (Diptera) of the tropical species of the Fabaceae family: cubé or barbas-
(Sheppard and Swedlund, 1999), Rosy apple aphid (Dysaphis co (Lonchocarpus utilis A. C. Sm.) and derris (Derris elliptica /
plantaginea Passerini) (Wyss and Daniel, 2004), Flour beetle Wall./ Benth) (Weinzierl, 2000). Dried Derris roots contain ap-
(Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val) (Arthur and Campbell, proximately 5% of rotenone (Ling, 2003). It has been used for
2008) and many other insect species. centuries by native tribes of Southeast Asia and South America

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88 Martina GRDIŠA, Kristina GRŠIĆ

as fish poison to catch fish and to obtain food. Rotenone has been A study conducted in India reported the efficacy of quassia
used as a selective fish poison for managing freshwater fisheries extracts on different insects, including mosquitoes, and the re-
since the 1930s (Whitehead and Bowers, 1983; Ray, 1991; Ling, sults have shown a high oral toxicity (Evans and Raj, 1988). It was
2003) to achieve the desired balance of the species. It is consid- found to be effective in controlling aphids, caterpillars, Colorado
ered to be one of the most environmentally benign toxins avail- potato beetles and sawflies. Nematocidal activity has also been
able for fisheries management. As a commercial insecticide it reported, as well as selectivity towards beneficial insects such
has been used for more than 150 years and it acts as a metabolic as ladybirds and honeybees (Pluke et al., 1999). Mancebo et al.
inhibitor, as well as a neurotoxic poison. It inhibits the electron (2000) conducted a study to determine the antifeedant activ-
transport chain in the mitochondria that results in failure of the ity of the quassia extract on Mahagony shootborers (Hypsipyla
respiratory functions (Ware and Whitacre, 2004). Shortly follow- grandella Zeller, H. robusta Shankland, Bissen and Weisblat), an
ing exposure to rotenone, the insects quickly stop feeding and important forest pest which attacks wood plants of the Meliaceae
death occurs between a few hours and several days later. It is a family. The extracts showed clear antifeedant activity against H.
contact and stomach poison effective on a wide range of insect grandella larvae. Soto et al. (2011) also demonstrated that prin-
species including caterpillars, aphids, suckers, trips and other ciples from quassia derivatives may play an important role in
pests found in fruits and vegetables (Tomlin, 2000), including dealing with H. grandella if they are complemented with other
the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say.), integrated pest management preventative tactics. The effects of
Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst), Diabrotica quassin and neoquassin on the Apple sawfly (Hoplocampa tes-
and Acalymma species (Weinzierl, 1998). In the investigation tudinea Klug) using spray treatment with the quassia extract
by Wheeler at al. (2001), rotenone reduced the amount of food were studied by Psota et al. (2010). The extract from the wood
absorbed by three polyphagous Noctuidae moth species and reduced the Apple sawfly infestation of fruitlets.
also their ability to transform the absorbed food to biomass.
Its effectiveness in controlling the ectoparasitic mite (Varroa Sabadilla
jacobsoni Oudemans) of honey bees has been determined by Sabadilla is extracted from the seeds of the sabadilla lily
Martel and Zeggane (2002). Rotenone is toxic to cold-blooded (Schoenocaulon officinale Schltdl. & Cham.), a tropical plant
animals, less toxic to warm-blooded animals and moderately which grows in Central and South America. Native American
toxic to humans. Pure rotenone is acutely toxic to mammals Indians have used sabadilla against different pests for centuries.
(rat oral LD50 is 132 mg/kg) but in available formulations, it is In a form of insecticidal dusts obtained by grounding the seeds
much less toxic (Isman, 2006). Rotenone is classified by the EPA it was also used by Spanish explorers and colonists (Weinzierl,
in either class I or III (highly toxic or slightly toxic) depending 2000). The alkaloids produced in sabadila are collectively known
on the product formulation. Rotenone is non-persistent in the as veratrine. Cevadine and veratridine are the most active vera-
environment, quickly broken down in light, air, heat (tempera- trines and exist in a 2:1 ratio (Dayan et al., 2009). Ripe and aged
tures must not exceed 25°C) and alkaline conditions. Therefore, sabadilla seeds contain approximately 0.3% of alkaloids (Ujvary
it is environmentally friendly (Ray, 1991; Holm et al., 2003). In et al., 1991). Veratrin is also produced by several other species in-
Europe, the formulations containing rotenone are used as protec- cluding European white hellebore (Veratrum album L.). Sabadilla
tion agents in organic agriculture. However, in some European affects the membrane of nerve cells, causing a loss of nerve func-
countries, such as Austria, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland, its use tion, paralysis and death. It is effective by either contact or in-
is partially restricted (Cavoski at al., 2011). Most commercial gestion against caterpillars, leaf hoppers, thrips, stink bugs and
products come from Central and South America. Rotenone’s squash bugs. It is highly toxic to honeybees (Weinzierl, 2000),
safety is somewhat controversial, because investigations have degrades rapidly when exposed to air and sunlight and has little
shown a connection between the use of rotenone and Parkinson’s residual toxicity. Sabadilla is considered among the least toxic
disease. Acute exposure in rats caused brain lesions, consistent of botanical insecticides with an oral LD50 of 4000-5000 mg/kg
with those observed in humans and animals with Parkinson’s (Dayan et al., 2009). Purified veratrine alkaloids are extremely
disease (Betarbet et al., 2000). toxic to mammals (rat oral LD50 13 mg/kg) (Isman, 1996).

Quassia Ryania
Bitterwood tree or quassia (Quassia amara L.) is a tropi- Ryania speciosa Vahl. (Flacourtiaceae) is a plant species in-
cal forest shrub, rarely a small tree, and a member of the digenous to South America. Woody stems of this plant contain
Simaroubaceae family. Quassia is indigenous to Northern Brazil alkaloids with insecticidal activity, collectively known as ry-
and the Guyana and it also grows in Venezuela, Columbia, anoids. The most active ryanoid is ryanodine and 9,21-dehydro-
Argentina, Panama and Mexico. In Guyana, Surin and Brazil ryanodine (Jeffries et al., 1992). The ground stem wood contains
insecticidal sprays are traditionally prepared by boiling pieces of less than 1% of ryanoide (Khater, 2012). It interferes with cal-
quassia wood in water. It was one of the insecticides widely and cium release in muscle tissue, thereby blocking neuromuscular
effectively used before the development of synthetic insecticides junctions. It is effective by either contact or ingestion against
(Mancebo et al., 2000). The wood of this plant species, depending Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea Boddie), European corn borer
on the age, contains 0.14–0.28% of quassinoids (mainly quas- (Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner), and citrus thrips (Regnault-Roger,
sin and neoquassin) that exhibit insecticidal activity (Polonsky, 2012), Codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.), caterpillars, and leaf
1973; Villalobos et al., 1999). It is a stomach and contact poison eating beetles. It is a slow-acting stomach poison and insects
and it is one of the few botanicals that have demonstrated sys- stop feeding soon after ingestion. Ryania has a relatively low
temic properties (Pluke et al., 1999).

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 Botanical Insecticides in Plant Protection 89

toxicity to mammals (Dayan et al., 2009). Purified ryanodine major constituent citronellal (Zaridah et al., 2003). Eucalyptus
is approximately 700 times more toxic than the crude ground essential oil can act as an insect repellent and insecticide. Kumar
or powdered wood. It has a longer residual activity than most et al. (2012) determined considerable activity of Tasmanian blue
other botanical insecticide. gum (Eucalyptus globulus /Labill./) oil against the larvae and
pupae of the housefly (Musca domestica L.), thereby demonstrat-
Essential oils and other sources of insecticidal ing its potential for the development of an eco-friendly product
activity for housefly control. Mossi et al. (2011) demonstrated the effec-
Essential oils are secondary plant metabolites as mixtures of tive insecticidal and repellent activity of essential oils of seven
volatile organic compounds. Many of the essential oils (mainly Eucalyptus species (Eucalyptus dunnii, E. saligna, E. benthamii,
from the Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, Rutaceae, Apiaceae, E. globulus and E. viminalis) in the control of the Maize weevil
and Laureaceae families) have great insecticidal potential (Khater, (Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky).
2012). They also possess antiviral, antibacterial, and antifun- The chemical constituents of essential oils from savory
gal properties. They are easy to extract and generally consid- (Satureja thymbra L.), oregano (Origanum onites L.) and myrtle
ered broad-spectrum and environmentally friendly because (Myrtus communis L.) were tested for their insecticidal activity
the array of compounds they contain quickly biodegrade in the against the adult stages of the stored product pests Mediterranean
soil (Misra et al., 1996). Moreover, they are relatively non-tox- flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella Zeller), Indian meal moth (Plodia
ic to mammals and fish (Koul et al., 2008). Essential oils from interpunctella Hübner) and the Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides ob-
different plant species exhibit ovicidal, larvicidal, antifeedant, tectus Say). The myrtle oil was more effective than the other oils
insecticidal and repellent action against various insect species tested against A. obtectus adults. The essential oils of oregano
(Isman, 2000; Cetin and Yanikoglu, 2006). They interfere with and savory were highly effective against P. interpunctella and
insect growth and development by altering feeding behavior E. kuehniella (Ayvaz et al., 2010). Ouden et al. (1993) reported
and behavior during oviposition and mating. Recent studies a decrease in adult and larval survival of the Cabbage root flies
have shown that some chemical compounds have neurotoxic (Phorbia brassicae Bch.) when treated with essential oils extracted
modes of action, interfering with the neuromodulator octopa- from the aerial parts of dill (Anethum graveolens L.). Palacios et
mine (Koul et al., 2008). The use of essential oils (basil, citrus al. (2009) evaluated the insecticidal activity of 12 essential oils
peel, eucalyptus, various mint species, lavender and rosemary) on the house fly (Musca domestica L.), and among them, the
in the protection of stored products is well known and many essential oils from sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L.) and sour
of the essential oils have been recognized as important natural orange fruit peel (Citrus x aurantium L.) as well as eucalyptus
agents in plant protection. leaves (Eucalyptus cinerea F. v. Muell.) were the most effective
Citrus oils are extracts from citrus peels of different plant and could be good candidates for development as fumigants.
species of the Meliaceae and Rutaceae family. Limonene and A total of 53 plant essential oils were tested for their in-
linalool are two major constituents of some citrus oils and they secticidal activities against eggs, nymphs, and adults of the
act as nerve toxins and contact poisons (Weinzierl, 2000). They Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood), a
evaporate quickly after application, leaving no harmful residu- major pest of greenhouse vegetables, especially tomatoes, cherry
als. Limonene is toxic to all the life stages of the fly; eggs, larvae, tomatoes, cucumbers, and ornamentals. This insect has devel-
pupae and adults. It is often applied with pyperonil butoxid to oped a resistance to many synthetic insecticides. Essential oils
enhance its effectiveness. Limonene extracted from sour or- from the bay (Laurus nobilis L.), caraway seed (Carum carvi L.),
anges (Citrus x aurantium L.) is toxic to adult Bean weevils clove leaf (Syzygium aromaticum /L./ Merrill & Perry), lemon
(Callosobruchus phasecoli Gyll.) ( Jacobson, 1982). In a study of eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora /Hook./ K.D. Hill & L. A. S.
Raina et al. (2007), orange oil extract (cca 92% limonene) was ef- Johnson), lime (Citrus × aurantifolia /Christm./ Swingle), pen-
ficient against the Formosan subterranean termite (Coptotermes nyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.), peppermint (Mentha x piperita
formosanus Shiraki), a major urban pest in USA. Linalool is toxic L.), rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora Ducke), spearmint (Mentha spi-
to the eggs and larvae of Caribbean fruit flies (Anastrepha sus- cata L.) and tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia /Maiden & Betche/
pense Loew) which is supported by the fact that females do not Cheel) were highly effective against adults, nymphs, and eggs of
lay eggs in immature grapefruits due to high concentrations of T. vaporariorum (Choi et al., 2003). Regnault-Roger et al. (1993)
linalool (Khater, 2012). Re et al. (2000) noted that linalool affects reported that the essential oils from dill (Anethum greveolens
ion transport and the release of acetylcholine esterase in insects. L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans
In the USA, various plant oils (clove, peppermint, etc.) are used Houtt.) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) have insecticidal
by professional pest control operators for cockroach control and activity against the Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus Say).
against ants and termites (Isman et al., 2011). Essential oils from rosemary (Rosemarinus officinalis L.),
Volatile oils from the Mentha species have shown to be vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides /L./ Roberty), thyme (Thymus vul-
effective against common stored grain pest; Cowpea weevel garis L.), ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn.),
(Callosobruchus maculates Fabricius) and Red flower beetle lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.), tansy (Tanacetum vul-
(Tribolium castanum Herbst) (Tripathi et al, 2000). Citronella gare L.), sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.), fennel (Foeniculum
(Cymbopogon nardus /L. / Rendle) essential oils have been used vulgare Mill.), atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica /Endl./ Manetti ex
for over fi ft y years as an insect repellent. Today they are mostly Carrière) (Koul et al., 2008), marjoram (Origanum majorana L.),
sold in a form of candles as mosquito repellent (Weinzierl, 2000). and sage (Salvia officinalis L.) (Pavela, 2004) are also known for
Larvicidal activity has also been observed and attributed to the their pest control properties.

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