2

1 DESIGN SECTION
1.1 Statistical Designing of the Aircraft Shape

Introduction, statement of a design task.

The purpose of this Bachelor’s project is to consolidate the knowledge required for
previous aircraft projects. For this purpose, it is necessary to get acquainted with the basic
tactical and technical requirements advanced to the aircraft of this purpose, their basic
parameters, the general device of the aircraft and units, the rules of execution of the
drawings of the general appearance of the aircraft.
The design task is to develop the design of the new aircraft and its components. At
the initial design stage, the overall layout of the aircraft should be developed. For
this purpose, the basic tactical and technical requirements (TTR) should be presented to
the aircraft, flight specifications, basic parameters, general arrangement of the aircraft and
its units, power plant (PP), the basic elements of aircraft units. The rules of execution of
the drawings of the general view and load-carrying structure of the aircraft and the
common device of its units should also be described. At this stage the concept of the
aircraft is formed, the purposes of designing as a list of functions implemented in certain
operating conditions are quantitatively determined
In this paper, the design method based on the statistics of existing aircraft is used, as
well as the analytical design method.

1.1.1 Development of technical task

For the collection of statistics, it is necessary to use aircraft data similar to the
chosen design and also have close flight characteristics and operating conditions. The
analysis of the statistical material makes it possible to develop TTR for the designed
aircraft, to choose its scheme.
The purpose of the task is to consider a possible variant of designing a regional
passenger and cargo aircraft with the following flight data - technical data:
purpose – regional passenger and or cargo aircraft;
flight range L – 2,200km;
number of passengers N pas – 80 people;
takeoff distance – 1,700 m;
cruise speed – 850 km/hr;
cruise altitude – 11 km;
engines type – Turbojet engine: 2×TRDD D-436-148D

The following aircraft were selected to collect statistics for this class of aircraft:
Antonov An-148, Ukraine, GP “Antonov”;
Kawasaki C-1, Japan, « Kawasaki Heavy Industries »;
An74-TK300, Ukraine, GP “Antonov”;
Antonov An-158, Ukraine, GP “Antonov”;
 Ilyushin IL – 276, Russia, “Ilyushin”;
Collecting and processing statistical data in the course of designing an aircraft allow
us to:
1. Gain a clear idea of the current level of development of aircraft.
2. Determine trends and prospects for the development of the type of aircraft
being developed, quantitative and qualitative changes in tactical and technical
requirements for the aircraft, the evolution of its destination, conditions of production, and
operation.
3. Determine the number of aircraft parameters. Done in a statistical table 1.1

Antonov An-148

Advanced Multi-Role Civil Airplane, the Antonov An-148 was designed by the
Antonov Aeronautical Scientific and Technical Complex, this powerful twin-engine
commercial plane first had its flight in late 2004. On February 26, 2007, the An-148
received its certification, making it a great option for airliners looking for planes that can
easily carry between 68 and 85 passengers AN-148 belongs to the class of medium
passenger class A aircraft (Figure 1.1).

Figure1.1 – AN-148 Aircraft

This plane has a high-wing monoplane design with a great weight efficiency. By
using titanium alloys in components of the plane, the company was able to easily drop the
weight to the aircraft. A state-of-the-art aircraft system and the impressive wing
configuration make this plane great to use in many locations. It’s perfect for use in poorly
equipped airfields and near foreign objects that could otherwise damage the plane.
Mechanization is presented in the form of sliding flaps. The landing gear consists of
three-bearing landing gear with a nose wheel. The power plant consists of 2 TRDD D-436-
148, located on the pylons under the wing. T-shaped tail with an arrow-shaped stabilizer.
The aircraft is equipped with modern aerobatic navigation and radio equipment that
complies with current ICAO international standards. The complex of electronic equipment
provides for the possibility of landing the machine in difficult meteorological and night
conditions under category IIIA ICAO.
The maximum takeoff weight of the aircraft is 43,700 kg and the maximum landing
weight is 37,800 kg. the maximum payload is 9,000 kg. Three projections are in (Figure
1.2).
 Figure 1.2 – Three projections AN-148

Kawasaki C-1 aircraft

The Kawasaki C-1 is a twin-engine, short-range military transport aircraft

developed by Kawasaki for Japan's Air Defense Force. It was created to replace outdated
WWII-era transport aircraft such as the C-46 armed with the Air Defense Self-Defense
Forces. The aircraft is operated only by the Japanese Self-Defense Forces, not
exported. Kawasaki is now developing the next generation Kawasaki C-2 transport aircraft
to replace the outdated Kawasaki C-1. The C-1 aircraft has a high-positioned swept wing,
a fuselage of circular cross-section, a T-shaped tail, and is taken in flight by the three-rack
landing gear. In the front section of the fuselage is a cabin consisting of 5 crew members,
behind it is a cargo cabin 10.8 m long, 3.6 m wide, and 2.25 m high. Both the crew cabin
and cargo cabin are sealed and connected to the air-conditioning system. The cargo, the
cabin can carry 60 soldiers with weapons or 45 paratroopers (Figure 1.3). The three
projections are in (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.3 – Kawasaki C-1 aircraft

 Figure 1.4 – Three Kawasaki C-1 projections

An – 74TK300

An-74TK-300 is a cargo-passenger aircraft, created in 2001 at KhSAVP based on

the An -74 transport aircraft with engines moved under the wing and a new interior of the
passenger cabin, developed by INTERAMI INTERIOR. On the plane, unlike the base
model, the D36 Series 4A engines (with reverse thrust) are mounted under the wing on
pylons. The new layout has significantly increased the speed, range, and cost-effectiveness
of the aircraft. The AN-74TK-300 is equipped with state-of-the-art radio communications
and aeronautical navigation equipment by ICAO 2015 requirements, which ensures the
flight of aircraft on equipped routes in all regions, in simple and difficult weather
conditions, day and night. The aircraft has several modifications, including passenger,
sanitary, VIP. The sophisticated aerodynamic layout of the aircraft, combined with the
high efficiency of the engines, allows the AN-74TK-300 to make long-haul flights in
minimum time (Figure 1.5). The three projections are in (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.5 – An-74TK300 aircraft

 Figure 1.6 – Three projections of the An-74TK300

Antonov An – 158

The AN-158 is a twin-engine passenger aircraft designed by the Ukraine State

Enterprise Antonov, and jointly manufactured by Antonov Serial Plant (Ukraine) and
Voronezh Aircraft Production Association (Russia). The aircraft provides seating for up to
99 passengers over a range up to 4,000 km.
The AN-158 aircraft design is based on AN-148 regional passenger transport
aircraft manufactured by SE Kyiv Aviation Plant Avant and Voronezh Aircraft. The main
structure of the AN-158 is aluminum, with carbon fiber used for making the ancillary
panels. The aircraft features an improved wing design resulting in 8.5% more fuel
efficiency compared to the AN-148. It also features a 1.7 m longer fuselage than the An-
148 and 5 m3 cabin volume more than that of AN-148. The AN-158 aircraft is in (Figure
1.7).

Figure 1.7 – Antonov An - 158

The AN-158 aircraft is powered by two D-436-148 turbofan engines designed by Ivchenko
Progress. Each engine generates about 15,000 lb (67 kN) of thrust. The aircraft features
full-authority digital engine control (FADEC), automatic control, and monitoring systems
that optimize the operation of the engines at all the flight stages, increase their reliability,
decrease fuel consumption, and direct operating costs.
Its maximum cruise speed varies between 780 km/h to 870 km/h. The cruising flight
altitude is up to 12,200 m. The aircraft has a maximum airport operating elevation of 3,000
m and a service ceiling of 40,000 ft. The range is between 1,500 to 4,500 km.
The maximum takeoff weight of the aircraft is 43,700 kg and the maximum landing
weight is 38,800 kg. the maximum payload is 9,800 or 10,000 kg. The three projections of
the aircraft are in (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8 – Three projections of Antonov An-158 aircraft

Ilyushin Il – 276

The IL-276 Medium Military Transport Aircraft [MMTR] is a twin-engine jet with
a take-off weight of just over 60 tons. It is reported by the press service of PJSC "IL". The
Il-276 should replace the Soviet An-12 and An-26 in the army. The first aircraft will be
equipped with the PS-90 engine, and subsequent production models will be equipped with
the latest PD-14. The aircraft will rise into the air in 2023, in 2026, serial deliveries will
begin (Figure 1.9).
 Figure 1.9 – Ilyushin Il – 276

As it stands (2018), the IL-276 will be crewed by three personnel to include two
pilots (seated side-by-side in the cockpit) and a mission engineer/loadmaster. Power will
come from 2 x Aviadvigatel PD-14M turbofan engines rated at 34,392 lb of thrust each
unit and these are featured under each wing mainplane - the mainplanes high-mounted
along the fuselage sides for excellent ground clearance. A Multhopp "T-style" tail unit will
be used at the empennage while the flight deck will take its traditional placement
overlooking a short nosecone. The three projections of the aircraft are in (Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.10 – Three projections of Antonov An-178 aircraft

1.1.2 Gathering and processing of the statistical data, their analysis

Table 1.1 – Statistical data of the Aircraft

Name of Kawa- Ан74-
Ан148 Ан158 IL - 276 Designed
the Aircraft saki C-1 ТК300
No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Vmax,
870 806 650 870. 870 885
km/hr
Hmax, km 12.5 12 13 12.2 13.1 11.6
Vсruise,
850 657 615 820 800 850
km/hr
Hсruise, km 11.6 11 10 11.6 12.2 11
Flight Data

Vclimb,
260 212 230 250 250 250
km/hr
Lempty(mт
3,910 3,353 3,500 3,100 7,300 3,500
max), km
Lfull(mгрma
2,000 1,300 2,750 2,600 2,000 2,200
x), km
Take-off,
1.50 0.91 1.110 1.9 1.050 1.7
km
Land, km 0.58 0.823 0.950 2 1.530 0.6
72000
m0max, kg
38550. 35108 37500 43700 Overload 31746
takeoff m
5200
Memory
22500 23220 22450 27700 45000 22146
equipped kg
m
Mass Data

9000 10,795.5 7000 9800 20,000 9,600

payload,kg
Pass, no 80 60 52 99 70 - 150 80
MF, кg 12000 11290 12950 12050 30700 6507
2
2 ТRDD 2 ТRDD 2 ТRDD
Number and Aviadviga
2 TRDD Mitsubishi Progress 2 TRDD Progress
Type of tel PD-
D-436-148 P&W D- 36 D-436-148 D- 36
engines 14M
JT8D-M-9 Series 4А Series 4А
34,400lb
Р0, kN 2 х 68.30 2х64.5 2х63.80 2x68.30 2 x152.98 2х68.30
Mouth
Power

engine, kg 1,450 1,470 1,450 1,450 2,950 1,515

Sw, m2 87.32 120.5 98.62 87.32 160 91.5
lw, m 28.91 30.6 31.89 28.56 35.5 29.59
χ° 25 30 13°58’ 26 25 25
λ° 9.58 7.8 10.3 9.57 9.44 9.57
η 4.05 3.3 3.07 4.04 4.04 4.05
Geometrical Data

Lf, m 29.13. 29 25.735 34.4 37.7 28

Df, m 3.5 3.6 3.1 3.9 4.8 3.5
λf, m 7.82 9.4 9.05 7.82 10 8
18.54
Sf, m 12.2 10.53 12.3 14.54 12.3
ΣS, m2 83 62 72 84.91 94.91 84
Svt 19.86 18.3 16.10 21 19.86 20.86
Sht 18.87 18.5 24.50 18.4 24.50 19.76
1.1.3 Aircraft tactical-technical requirements development

After collecting statistics, we proceed to the development of tactical and technical

requirements. This stage will be conducted based on the analysis of statistical materials,
supplementing the set tactical and technical requirements of the designed aircraft.
Specified passenger aircraft for 80 passengers:
 with a flight range L = 2,200 km;
 length of take-off Lake-off = 1,700 m;
then assign the altitude of the cruise flight L cruise = 11 km;
 cruising speed V cruise = 850 km / h;
 M flight = 870/1,062 = 0.819 (with H cruise = 11 km).
Let's choose the number of crew members: for class I compartments with several
passengers up to 80 we need 2 flight attendants, that is only 5 crew members are needed
(Table 1.2)
Table 1.2 – Tactical-technical requirements
Мach no R,
Vcr., Vmax, L Ltake-off, Naps, Cruise, Ncrew,
(H=11km) (H=10km),
km/h Km/h km m no km p
hours

60000 850 870 2,200 1700 80 11 5

0.819

1.1.4 Selection and justification of the aircraft layout

The scheme of the aircraft - the external shape and interposition of the parts, which
determines the mass characteristics, tactical, operational, and technological characteristics.
Based on the tactical and technical requirements for the designed aircraft, and the
analysis of statistics, we choose the scheme of a normal, anhedral monoplane with a high-
positioned, swept wing. The wing is mechanized on the back edge of the two slotted flaps
with a fixed deflector, the leading edge is fitted with flaps, at the tip of the wing are
ailerons. The T-shaped empennage is located at the tail end of the fuselage and consists of
a single-axis vertical empennage with a three-section rudder and trimmer servo
compensator, and a horizontal empennage with a rudder, trimmer, and servo compensator,
a three -strut landing gear with nose strut. The application of the high-positioned
wing scheme is explained by the purpose of the aircraft.
With this wing arrangement the following advantages are achieved:
- simplifies the operation of the aircraft at the aerodrome;
- free maneuvering of transport of servicing aircraft is provided;
- the likelihood of foreign objects getting into the engine air tract is reduced.
The use of the high-positioned wing scheme allows reducing the interference
resistance compared to the low-positioned wing. The scheme of the medium-positioned
wing, in this case, is not acceptable due to the complexity of the organization of the center
plan, which will pass through the passenger compartment.
Also, the high-positioned scheme allows to reduce the height of the chassis supports
while attaching them to the fuselage, and therefore their weight. This decreases the
distance between the armament compartment threshold and the aerodrome surface. Having
the main gear attached to the fuselage means the wing structure is spared the stress of
takeoff and landing. In most cases, amenities like large doors and windows that open are
easier to engineer with a high wing.
The adopted scheme has disadvantages, the most significant of which are the
following:
- in case of emergency landing on the water, unlike the low-positioned wing, the
high-positioned scheme has reduced buoyancy and stability;
- accidental landing on the fuselage almost always leads to its considerable damage
in such a way that requires long repair;
- engine service conditions are deteriorating because ladders and auxiliary fixtures
are required to access, dismantle and service the PP.
Engines - turbojet double-circuit D-436 - 4A, located on the wing. Placing the
engines on the wing in the nacelle pods allows you to unload the wing, i.e. reduce its
weight because it helps counterbalance the lift force pushing wing tips upwards.
It is the turbojet double-circuit engines that allow obtaining the lowest specific fuel
consumption and the highest thrust in a given range of speeds and altitudes while having
lower noise and vibration levels.
The three -strut landing gear with nose strut provides more effective braking during
the run, significantly reduces the possibility of "swerving" and eliminates the phenomenon
of the ground loop of the aircraft, improving take-off - landing for pilots. In addition, the
landing gear with nose support has better stability when moving on the airfield. The nose
support is pulled forward into the fuselage, the main ones - into special fairings on the
fuselage. However, the landing gears made according to this scheme, have more weight.
The use of a T-shaped empennage is caused by the desire to move the HS up from
the zone of skewed airflow disturbed by the wing, in addition, in such a scheme, the length
from the center of mass of the aircraft to the center of pressure of the HS are increased,
which allows reducing its area slightly, and consequently, it’s mass. HS is placed off the
zone of wing wash on all flight phases, VS is loaded additionally, its mass is increased.
In addition to the airplane scheme discussed above, it is necessary to consider the
airplane engine diagram under the wing for comparison. This is because Antonov has been
developing a similar variant of the aircraft for several years. Moving the engines under the
wing will allow improving the fuel efficiency of the aircraft by eliminating the inhibition
of the jet stream from the engines about the upper surface of the wing in cruise modes of
flightAccordingis a table that defines the basic geometric parameters of the aircraft, based
on statistics.
Accrding to statistics, the basic parameters of chord ofg λ, χ, η were dedeflexion,
b S aileron
the b з= з relative chordof the flap is the defleonn of the flaps, the relative Saileron =
b S
aileron area, parameters of the fuselage, HS, VS, and recorded in table 1.3.
 Table 1.3 – Basic parameters of the aircraft

Λ χ η c bз δз Sail λf Df, м L f, м
9.57 25 4.05 0.1 0.15 30 0.02 8 3.5 28
S HS SVS λHS λVS χ HS χ VS с HS с VS ηHS VS

0.216 0.228 4.6 4.6 32 32 0.09 0.12 2.5 1are.3

1.1.5 Calculation of aircraft zero approximation take-off mass

The take-off mass of the aircraft at zero approximation is determined by the

formula:
m p .l +mcrew 9600+400
m 0= = =31746 (kg).
1−(mairfr +mPow . Pl + mfuel + mctrl . sys) 1−(0 ,28+ 0 ,1+ 0,205+0 , 1)
m р .l = 120 · n pass = 120 × 80 = 9600 kg;
mcrew = 80 × n crew = 80 x 5 = 400 kg
Lfl
The value m̄fuel is determined from the formula:a+ b × V where L - flight range, L =
cruise
2200
2,200 (km), V - flight speed, V = 850 (km / hour), a = 0.05, b = 0.06, then 0.05+ 0.06× 850
= 0.205
m̄airfr = 0.28;
m̄ pow . pl= 0.1; m̄ctrl ,sys = 0.1.
9600+400
Then m0= 1−(0 ,28+ 0 ,1+ 0,205+0 , 1) = 31746 kg.

1.1.6 Calculation of the structural mass of the main aircraft assemblies,

power plant mass, fuel mass, the mass of the equipment and control

Using statistics, we calculate:

Crew weight mcrew=80 ncrew=80×5=400 (kg);
Payload mass m p.l = 120× n pass = 120 ×80 = 9600 (kg);
Lfl
Relative mass of fuel m̄fuel =a+b V where L - flight range, L = 2200 (km), V - flight
cruise

speed, V = 850 (km / hour), a = 0.05, b = 0.06, then

Relative mass of fuel m̄fuel =0.205 ;
Relative mass of airframe m̄airfr =0.28;
The relative mass of the powerplant m̄ pow . pl=0.1;
Relative mass of equipment and control system m̄ctl . sys=0.1;
Determine the weight of the airframe: mairfr =0.28 ⋅31746=8888 (kg).
Wing mass mwing=0.396⋅ 8888=3520 (kg).
Fuselage weight mfuselage =0.351 ⋅8888=3119.68 (kg).
Tail Unit weight mT . U =0.069 ⋅8888=613.32 (kg).
Landing gear weight m L/G =0.186 ⋅8888=1653.3 (kg).
Mass of fuel mfuel =0.205 ⋅31746=6507.9 (kg).
Weight of the power plant m pow . pl=0.1 ⋅31746=3174 (kg).
Weight of the equipment mctl . sys=0.1 ⋅31746=3174 (kg).
All mass values are recorded in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 – The mass values of the aircraft units

m 0, mp.l, mcrew mfuel, men, кг mCtlsys, mairf, mwing mfuse, mTU, mL/G,
kg kg , kg kg kg kg , kg kg kg kg
3174 960 400 6507. 1515× 3174 888 3520 3119. 613.3 1653.
6 0 9 2 8 9 2 3
=3174

1.1.7 Engine selection and its characteristics

From the statistical data, we determine the thrust-to-weight ratio of an aircraft of

this class:t 0=0.36 (kW /kg),
Р 0=t 0 . m0. g=0.36 ·31746 · 9.81=112114.17(N )
From these conditions, the turbojet engine TRDD D-436-148D was selected (Figure
1.11).

Figure. 1.11 – TRDD D-436-148D Engine

Designed to power short-haul passenger aircraft with passenger capacity of up to

100 people. Installed on the An-148 and the An-158 regional passenger aircraft. It meets
the effective environmental requirements of ICAO standards. In commercial production
since 2005. The aircraft engines were developed by GP Ivchenko-Progress.
This engine has the following parameters:
 required starting thrust P0 = 68.3 (kN);
 Take-off thrust =7010 kgf
  Specific fuel consumption at takeoff when climbing = 0.351 (kg / kgf/h);
 the total degree of rise in pressure at take-off π = 14;
 the degree of double circuit m = 4;
 gas temperature before turbine tg = 1172 K;
 Total air flow through the engine 124 kg / s;
 engine diameter d en = 1756 (mm);
 engine length L en = 2318 (mm);
 mass of dry engine M en (with reverse) = 1450 (1850) (kg).

1.1.8 Determination of the basic geometrical parameters of the aircraft

assemblies (wings, fuselage, tail units, landing gear)
Determination of the geometric parameters of the wing:
specific load on the wing at takeoff P0 = 340 (daN / m 2 ).
Determine the wing area by the ratio:
m0 ⋅ g 31746 ⋅9.8
S= = =91.5 ≈ 91.5 (m2).
10⋅ P 10 ⋅340
(in the future I will take the wing area of 91.5 m 2).

Wing span:
l= √ λ ⋅ S=√ 9.57 ⋅91.5=29.59 (m),
where λ = 9,57 – wing aspect ratio.
Root broot(b0) and tip btip chords of the wing are determined based on the values of S, l,
η:
η = 4.05 - narrowing of the wing,
S 2⋅ η 91.5 2⋅ 4.05
b o= ⋅ = ⋅ =4.96 (m);
l η+1 29.59 4.05+ 1
b0 4.96
b tip= = =1.22 (m).
η 4.05
Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC):
2
2 η + η+1 2 (4.05)²+ 4.05+1
b a= ⋅b 0 ⋅ = ⋅ 4.96 ⋅ =3.46 (m).
3 ( η+1 ) ⋅η 3 4.05 ⋅ ( 4.05+1 )

Determine the MAC coordinate spanwise:

l η+2 29.59 4.05+2

Z a= ⋅ = ⋅ =5.90 (m).
6 η+1 6 4.05+1

The coordinate of the MAC nose along axis OX is determined by:

b η+2
X а= ⋅ tg χ l . ed,
6 η+1
Where χ [Link] = 25° the sweepback angle at the leading edge of the wing,
X a=Z a ⋅tg χ l .ed =5.90 ⋅0.5923=3.49 (m).
η−1 4.05−1
where tg χ l .ed =tg χ + 4 ( η+2 ) =tg 25+ 4 ( 4.05+2 ) =0.59 23.
 Determination of geometrical parameters of the fuselage:
The Length of the fuselage: l f =λ f ⋅ Df =8 ⋅3.5=28 (m).
Length of the nose section of the fuselage:
l n . f . =λns . f . ⋅ Df =1,8 ⋅3.5=6.3 (m).
Length of the aft section of the fuselage:
l a . f . =λa . f . ⋅ D f =2,8⋅3.5=9.8 (m).
Length of cylindrical section of the fuselage:
Lc.f. = lf −ln .f .−l a .f . =28−6.3−9.8=11.9(m).

Determination of geometric parameters of HS:

The area of the HS S HS=S Hs ⋅ S=0.216 ⋅91.5=19.7 6 [m 2].
Also, as for the wing determined l HS , lv о, b 0 HS,b 0 v о,b к . HS,b к .v о :
span of HS l HS =√ S HS ⋅ λ HS= √19.76 ⋅ 4.6=9.53 (m);
S HS η HS ⋅2 20 ,04 2.5 ⋅2
root chord HS b 0 HS= l ⋅ η + 1 = 9,53 ⋅ 2.5+1 =2.96 (m);
HS HS
b
0 HS 2.96
tip chord of HS b tip. HS= η =2.5 =1.18 (m);
HS

Mean Aerodynamic Chord of HS

2 η +η HS +1 2
2
6.25+2.5+1
b A . HS= ⋅b 0 HS ⋅ H S = ⋅ 2.96⋅ =2.19 (m);
3 ( η HS+ 1 ) ⋅ ηHS 3 2.5⋅ ( 2.5+1 )
l η HS+ 2 9.53 2.5+2
Determine the MAC coordinate spanwise: Z a .HS = 6 ⋅ η + 1 = 6 ⋅ 2.5+1 =2.04 (m);
HS

The coordinate of the MAC nose along axis OX is determined by:

X a .HS =Z a . HS ⋅tg χ nHS=2.04 ⋅0.708=1.44 (m);
η−1 2.5−1
where tg χ l .ed =tg χ + 4 ( η+2 ) =tg 32+ 4 ( 2.5+2 ) =0.708.

Let us define the geometric characteristics of VS:

area of VS SVS=S VS ⋅ S=0.228 ⋅91.5=20.86 (m 2);
span of VS lVS=√ SVS ⋅ λVS =√20.86 ⋅1.155=4.90 (m);
VS S
VS η ⋅2
20 ,86 1.3 ⋅2
root chord VS b 0 VS= l ⋅ η + 1 =4 ,90 ⋅ 1.3+1 =4.81 (m);
VS VS

0 b
4.81
tip chord of VS b к .VS= η =1.3 = 3.709 (m);
VS

VS
2 2
2 η VS +η VS+1 2 ( 1.3 ) +1.3+1
average aerodynamic chord of VS b a .VS= 3 b 0 ⋅ = ⋅ 4.81 ⋅ =4.27 (m);
( η VS+1 ) η VS 3 1.3 ⋅ ( 1.3+1 )
l ηVS +2 4.9 1.3+2
Determine the MAC coordinate spanwise VS Y a . VS= 3 ⋅ η +1 = 3 ⋅ 1.3+1 =2.34 (m);
( VS )
The coordinate of the MAC nose along axis OX is determined by:
X H а .VS=Y а .VS ⋅tg χ l . ed =4.68 · 0,6475 = 3.030 (m).
η−1 1.3−1
where tg χ l .ed =tg 30° + 4 ( η+2 ) =tg30 °+ 4 (1.3+ 2 ) =0.6475 .

Determination of geometric parameters of the chassis:

 For nose-wheel tri-cycle landing gear the following parameters are the basic:
b– wheel base – distance between axels of the nose wheel and main landing gear wheels;
В – wheel track – distance (on front view) between wheels of aircraft and MLG;

е – MLG offset that is the distance (on side view) between a vertical line passing through
the airplane center of gravity and axis (or centerline of several wheels, bogie) of MLG;
а – nose wheel offset that is the distance between a vertical line passing through the
airplane center of gravity and nose wheel axis (or axis of several wheels whenever);
Н – the height of airplane center of gravity;
h – distance from leg attachment fittings to the runway surface when shock absorber and
tires compression is of parking state (at take-off mass).
Derivative values from the above-mentioned parameters:
φ – the angle of overturning (that means angle appearing when fuselage tail part or its tail
bump touches the runway surface);
γ – offset angle of MLG relatively to airplane CG.

Overturn angle φ is determined by the formula:

φ =αland max - αsett – ψ, = 22-4-2 =16
αland max - maximum landing angle-of-attack;
ψ- static ground angle (angle between fuselage construction plane and runway surface)
γ = φ + (1…2) ° = 16 +2 = 18;
b ≈ ( 0.3 … 0.4 ) l fuselage=0.36 × 28=10.08
Therefore e = (0.06…0.12) b = 0.61 ×10.08 =6.148;
a= (0.94…0.88) b = 0.93×10.08=9.386

Wheel track B
2H ×b×µ 2 ×2.05 ×11.2 × 0.85
B= ≥2H= =4.1939
√ a −H
2 2 2
×µ √9.386 2−2.052 ×0.852
Where µ - side friction coefficient = 0.85;
Turning over is impossible when c ≥ µ × H :
c=a ×
2 √
B 2 B2
b + =9.386 ×
4
4.1939
2
11.22 +
√
4.1939 2
4
=4.98

Landing gear height(h) is determined by providing a minimum clearance between

the runway surface and the airframe of (200 ... 250) mm. We accept chassis height
800mm. The height(H) of the CM above the runway is assumed to be 2,797 m.
The landing gear wheel largely determines the lateral stability when moving on the
ground, as well as influences maneuverability and controllability. Its value lies within
2H≤B <16 (m). However, for a high-altitude with the main struts of the chassis, which are
drawn into the gondolas of the fuselage, it is difficult to provide a greater amount of
gauge, so we accept the minimum permissible: B = 2H, where H is the height of CM
above the runway.
Then: B = 2 ×2.05 = 4.100 (m).
1.1.9 Selection, justification, development and reconciliation of aircraft load-
carrying structure

Choice and justification of wings:

As a criterion for the choice of wings the concept of conditional spar can be
used. The force set of wings perceives the load we replace conventionally with one
spar. The current load determines the thickness of the belt of the conditional spar and from
the obtained result we give a qualitative assessment of the choice of the LCS of the
wing. The thickness of the conditional spar belt is determined by the formula:
P
(P 0 ⋅ S ⋅ z A −2 m i g ⋅ z i−mwing g⋅ z A )⋅n
δ cond= ;
0.96 c .¯b2 σ
0. P
P0 - specific load on the wing during takeoff = 3,400 N/m2
S - wing area, S = 91.5 m²;
Za is the coordinate of the average aerodynamic chord from the longitudinal axis of the
airplane along the wing span, Za = 5.90 m;
mi is the mass of cargo on the wing. On one wing console there is a power plant and fuel =
6507 + 3174 = 9681 kg;
zi is the coordinate of the center of mass of the load on the wing from the longitudinal axis
of the airplane along the wing span =5.5 m;
n =3 , 75 - coefficient of calculated overload;
P

Mwing – a mass of the wing, Mwing = 3520 kg;

- relative thickness of the wing profile = 0.11;
b0 is the root chord of the wing b0 = 4.96 m.
On the wing are the chassis and fuel tanks and engines.
Gondola and pylon engine weight:
men ≈ 2000 kg
Coordinate point:
z i=5.5 m
(3400⋅ 91.5 ⋅5.90−2 ⋅9681 ⋅9.8 ⋅5.5−3520⋅ 9.8⋅ 5.90) ⋅3 , 75
δ cond= =0.00 1061 m .
0.96 ⋅0.11⋅4. 96 2 ⋅800 ⋅1 06
Since, the skin can be made thick enough to accept the wing's caisson scheme.
The wing's caisson scheme is suitable for greater wing torsional rigidity. It is
advantageous for large airplanes, with a large, elongated wing and a heavy load of 1
m 2. Favorable conditions for placing fuel in the wing are created.
Structural and power scheme can also be selected by the criterion of the intensity of
the momentary load acting on the wing.
Calculate the value of intensity torque load and power defined by the expression:
М [ ( Р 0 S−mкр g ) z a−mi g z i ] n ((340 0⋅ 91.5−3520 ⋅ 9.8)5.90−9681⋅ 9.8⋅ 5. 5)⋅ 4
р

= = ;
3
Н 1.03 ( с̄ . b 0 )
3
1.03 ⋅¿ ¿
Q [ P0−mкр ⋅ g−2 ⋅mi ⋅ g ] ⋅n (3400−3520 ⋅9.8 – 2× 9681 ⋅9.8) ⋅4
p

= = ;
H 2 1.28 ⋅ ( c̄ ⋅b 0 )2 1.03⋅ ¿¿
 We accept the monoblock or torsion box scheme of the wing because M/H 3 > 10…
15 Mpa.
The wing caisson is formed by the walls of the spars and pressed panels with
titanium alloy BT6.
The front spar extends 20% of the chord from the tip of the wing, the rear - 65%, the
longitudinal wall-73%. Sidewalls, longitudinal wall - prefabricated.
The connection of the wing with the fuselage - fitting, is made on the outline, as the
scheme of the wing caisson to frames 24 and 29.
The ribs are fixed to the walls of the spars by means of pressed racks, in the cross-section
have the shape of a corner, and to the panels - by means of hooks. The ribs are
perpendicular to the axis of the rear spar.
Panels are prefabricated. To access the units, some panels are removable, attached
to non-removable panels and ribs with steel bolts.
Stringers are located on percentage lines.
Everything in the wing is located:
 12 stringers;
 79 ribs.
Attaching the wings to the fuselage - fitting, on the working contour.
The flaps are attached to the power ribs 7, 15, 15, 16, 21, 23, 25, 27;
Flaps-4, 7, 10, 15, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37;
Aileron - 27, 29, 31, 33, 36;
Engine - 13, 14.
Step of ribs a = 450 mm, distance between stringers in root section
b = 177 mm.
Choice and justification of Tail Unit LCS:
The empennage is T-shaped. Horizontal empennage spars in the side section are attached
to the vertical empennage spars in the final section.
The connection of the Vertical Stabilizer (Rudder) to the fuselage is carried out by means
of momentary fastening nodes connecting the Vertical Stabilizer’s spars with the fuselage
frames 48, 53.
Empennage rudder - 2 Longeron. The front spar extends at a distance of 21.5%
chord from the tip profile, the rear - 64.4%. Ribs are perpendicular to the axis of the
posterior spar, stringers - in percentage lines.
Number of elements in the VS:
 Spar - 2;
 Rib - 14;
 Stringers - 12.
The distance between the stringers - 175mm in the section of the root rib between the
spars, 190mm - in the tip profile.
The distance between the ribs is 400mm. The rudder is directly attached to the ribs 5, 6, 8,
10, 12, 14.
Horizontal stabilizer - 2 Longeron. The front spar extends at a distance of 21.5%
chord from the tip profile, the rear - 64.4%. Ribs are perpendicular to the axis of the
posterior spar, stringers - in percentage lines.
 Number of elements in the VS:
 Spars/ longeron - 2;
 Rib - 16;
 Stringers - 13.
The distance between the stringers – 140 mm in section of the root spine between the
spars, 160 mm - in the tip profile.
The distance between the ribs is 400 mm. The elevator control is attached to the power
ribs 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 16.
Choice and justification of fuselage:
The cross-section is a circle.
A beam and stringer semi-monocoque type fuselage is used on this aircraft.
The main elements of such construction are stringers, frames, working paneling.
Stringers are made of pressed angular profiles. The distance between the thongs is 164mm.
frames:
- normal, z-shaped section made of sheets by punching;
- reinforced, pressed and milled with mounting nodes for different units.
The distance between the frames - 335-450 mm.
The cladding skin is attached to the stringers and frames by means of rivets. The
connection is sealed by layer of sealant.
Number of elements in the fuselage:
 Frames - 58;
 Stringers - 64.
Power frame 1 is used to attach the radar and translucent fairing. The frames 2, 5 are
reinforced to design a cutout for the crew cabin lantern. For the design of cutouts under the
door reinforced frames No. 10, 12, 42, 44. To the power frames 8, 9 the nose support of
the landing gear is fastened, to power frames No. 32, 33 - the main support of the landing
gear. To the power frames No. 48, 53 the VS is attached.
Choice of Landing gear:
The scheme of the landing gear is three-strut with the front support. The three-
wheeled landing gear with the front rack best solves the safety of landing. It is Truss-
Girder with symmetrical wheel to strut attachment, beam-brace wheel levered suspension.
The movement of the aircraft with the landing gear of this scheme is quite stable both in
the longitudinal and ground relation, and provides proper controllability and stability.
Structural and power scheme of the chassis and scheme of its retracting should provide:
- the smallest weight of the landing gear (taking into account the reinforcement of notches
under the chassis in the design of the airframe);
- the smallest occupied space of landing gear in the retracted position in the fuselage;
- simplicity of kinematic scheme of mechanisms of release and retraction of the landing
gear.
 Conclusions

As a result of work on this section, the design and operational features of a

passenger aircraft with the number of passengers n = 80 people and a range of flight L =
2200 km were considered.
According to the statistics data of similar aircraft, the tactical and technical
requirements of the designed aircraft were determined. Based on the obtained TTR, the
mass characteristics of the aircraft and its basic geometrical parameters and LCS were
determined.