UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE

ECD 102D Lettering and Typography

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019
 THIS MODULE FORMS PART OF CoDEUCC PACKAGE FOR THE
BED/BSC INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMME

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COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE

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ABOUT THIS BOOK

This Course Book “ECO 102D Lettering and Typography” has been
exclusively written by experts in the discipline to up-date your general
knowledge of Education in order to equip you with the basic tool you will
require for your professional training as an IT teacher/specialist.

This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to
reflect the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus,
each session is equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance
learner, however, you are expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a
maximum of five hours on each session.

To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed
to show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly
schedules are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and
examinations.

Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.

Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you
may find difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course
tutor during your face-to-face meetings.

We wish you a happy and successful study.

CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology i

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one

received from colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who
contributed in diverse ways toward the production of this particular course
book merit more than mere acknowledgement for two main reasons. First, they
worked beyond their normal limits in writing, editing and providing constant
support and encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the task
was very high. Second, the time span for the writing and editing of this
particular course book was so short that their exceptional commitment and
dedication were the major factors that contributed to its accomplishment.

It is in the foregoing context that the names of ---------------------------------------

---------- University of Cape Coast, who wrote and edited the content of this
course book for CoDEUCC, will ever remain in the annals of the College. This
special remembrance also applies to those who assisted me in the final editing
of the document.

I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, the

Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Prof. (Mrs.) Rosemond Boohene and all the staff of the
University’s Administration without whose diverse support this course book
would not have been completed.

Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially ------

-------------------------------------- for formatting the scripts.

Any limitations in this course book, however, are exclusively mine. But the
good comments must be shared among those named above.

Prof. Anokye Mohammed Adam

(Provost)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

About this Book ... ... ... ... ... ... i

Acknowledgement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ii
Table of Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iii
Symbols and their Meanings ... ... . ... ...

CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology i

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

 SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

UNIT OBJECTIVES

SESSION OBJECTIVES

DO AN ACTIVITY

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

REFER TO

READ OR LOOK AT

SUMMARY

SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTION(S)

ASSIGNMENT

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND
LETTERING UNIT 1

UNIT 1: DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND LETTERING

Unit Outline
Session 1: Developments from Pre-alphabetic Era to Alphabetic Era
Session 2: Classification of Typefaces (Roman, San serif and Square Serif)
Session 3: Classification of Typefaces (Text, Script and Novelty)
Session 4: Anatomy of Typeface and Terms in Typography
Session 5: Lettering Tools and Materials
Session 6: Determining Conventional Sizes of Typeface and Measuring Type

Dear learner, we welcome you to an interesting area in Visual

communication called lettering and typography. In this unit, we are
going to introduce you history of visual communication and finally focus on
development of alphabetic systems. The unit will also introduce you to basic
theories and principles of typography applicable in Visual Communication.
The unit will be delivered through face-to-face and online tutorials, practical
demonstrations, individual project works, presentations and jury sessions. So
relax it is going to be an interesting unit.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. trace the development of Visual Communication from
pictographs to alphabetic era;
2. classify typefaces in six and give examples;
3. discuss and illustrate anatomy of typefaces;
4. explain some terms in typography;
5. discuss lettering tools and materials; and
6. determine conventional sizes of typefaces

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 DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1 AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND
LETTERING
This is a blank sheet for short notes on:
• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
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LETTERING SESSION 1

SESSION 1: DEVELOPMENTS FROM PRE-ALPHABETIC

ERA TO ALPHABETIC ERA
Dear learner, this session aims at equipping you with knowledge
on history of Visual Communication from pre-alphabetic to
alphabetic era. In this unit, we will trace the genesis of Visual Communication
from pre-historic period to the medieval periods.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. state in chronological order, developmental stages of Visual
Communication from pictogram to alphabetic era.
b. describe the characteristics of each stage of the developments

Now read on…

1.1 Historical Development of Visual Communication from

Pictogram to Alphabetic Era
Human communication started from prehistoric era when human beings began
to live together in groups and in communities. As human cultures developed
over the years, different languages were developed among races and in
communities, but for many years the only way they could keep records of their
activities and events were through memory and oral tradition which were not
very reliable because such narrations could easily change in words and
meaning and the facts could easily become distorted after being repeated
several times.

As civilization went on, they realized it was imperative to develop a way of

writing down their messages or activities easily and permanently, hence, the
development of visual communication. Visual communication is the art of
conveying information by writing or with graphic symbols or images. Visual
communication developed through many ways and stages. Initially, people
made marks on tree trunks, and set up piles of rocks to show that something
had happened. However, these could not easily tell what had happened. True
visual communication developed through the following stages:
 Pictograms (Pictograph)
 Ideograms (Ideograph)

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 UNIT 1
SESSION 1

 Phonogram (Phonograph)
 Phoenician Alphabets
 Greek Alphabets
 Roman Alphabets.

(Dennis and Jenkins 1991)

Dear learner, now, let us discuss the stages into details:

Pictogram
This is also call Pictograph. It is a visual or pictorial symbol representing a
concept, object, activity, place or event. The word was formed from two
different Latin words Pictus which means painting and graph meaning drawing
or writing. Thus, Pictography refers to the art of creating a painting or picture.
The word is used as a generic term to represent all forms of visual symbols that
represent a single idea, a word, or painting.

Pictograms that represent a single idea are called ideograms, those that
represent a word are called logograms and those that are carved into rocks are
called petrographs. Apart from alphabets, all forms of visual or pictorial
symbols developed in different cultures to represent an idea, object or concept
are examples of pictograms. For instance, all forms of traditional and universal
symbols that are used in visual communication such as safety, warning,
mandatory, cautionary, directly signs etc. are pictograms.

Pictograms such as prehistoric paintings and drawings (petrographs) marked

the first stage of visual communication. These drawings and paintings were
made by the prehistoric men deep inside caves to show the things they had
seen in their environment and to describe their activities and express their ideas
and beliefs. The early forms of petrographs (Prehistoric cave paintings and
drawings) did not express a specific idea or describe an event or action being
performed by the images. As a result many cultures over time developed
logographs and ideograms which they could use to communicate much better
than cave paintings and drawings.

Ideogram
This is also called Ideograph. Ideograph is a system of picture writing, which
uses simple drawings and symbols to represent a thing or an idea. With

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 1
ideographs, the images or symbols show the chronology of a specific action or
an activity. As the prehistoric men developed in ideas they drew a lot of
ideograms in their caves. Examples are knelling Bull, running deer, and others.
American Indians also developed a kind of ideograph in which they used
outlined symbols to describe many activities. This ideograph tells a story of a
person leaving home and taking a canoe to travel ten days to a friend’s home.
Together they travel in their canoe to the hunting area. They stalk their prey
with bows and arrows and make a kill. They then travel homeward taking the
amount of time indicated by the number of fingers shown.

Phonogram (Hieroglyphics)
Phonogram is a system of writing in which symbols or characters are used to
represent a word, sound or syllables. Example of a phonogram is
“Hieroglyphics” (Picture Script). The first form of hieroglyphics was
developed by ancient Egyptians in B.C. 4000. It consisted of several hundred
signs and small pictures. These picture signs stood for full words or for
syllables and sounds. By combining these signs the Egyptians could
communicate messages and ideas. Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic writing
symbols are other examples of hieroglyphic symbols. The ancient Egyptians
used hieroglyphics to write the biographies of their kings (pharaohs) and
prominent people in their society. They used papyrus three to invent a type of
crude paper which they used as support for writing hieroglyphics.

Phoenician alphabets
This marked the beginning of developing a true alphabet. This system of
writing did not use pictures to represent ideas or sounds but used symbolic
letters to stand for sounds. This writing system was developed in about 1200
B.C. in a small country called Phoenicia (now a part of Syria). The
Phoenicians learned the partial alphabets used by their neighbours to develop
their alphabets. Gradually they were able to develop a twenty-two-character
alphabet, which helped them greatly in their trade and travel. By about 1000,
B.C., their alphabets were in full use. Their alphabets had only consonants, the
reader had to decide where vowel sounds were to be added. E.g. they wrote
horse as “HRS” and the reader had to tell from the context that it was not
‘hours’ or ‘hers’.
Greek alphabets
The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabets and made some changes to
them. For example, they made some of the letters stand for vowels and also

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 UNIT 1
SESSION 1

changed the style of some of the letters. By about 600 B.C. the Greek alphabets
were complete.

Roman alphabets
The Romans learned the Greek alphabets from the Etruscans who lived in
central Italy before the rise of the Roman Empire and adopted it to their own
needs. The Romans manipulated the alphabets for some years till A. D. 114
when they were able to develop perfect 23 characters. The other three
characters were developed later. Upon adaptation from the Greeks, The
Romans used it on the columns of a monument built for Empire Trojan of
Rome. They chiseled the letters into stones and as a result, spurs were created
at the ends of the strokes. The chiseling also created varying thickness in the
strokes. They adopted these deformities into the structure of the characters
gradually through broad pen writing (Calligraphy) until it became formalized.
It is important to study the systematic developments that went on in the
Phoenician, Greek and Roman alphabets during their adaptation periods. At
this level, only the first three letters will be discussed.

The letter ‘A’ originally was a picture of the head of an Ox (Ideograph). The
Phoenicians used the symbol as their letter ‘Aleph’. The Greeks changed the
symbol and called it ‘Alpha’. The Romans also redesigned the letter to sound
like our familiar ‘A’. The Phoenicians symbol for the letter ‘B’ was the shape
of a shelter. This letter was called ‘Beth’; The Greeks changed it and called it
‘Beta’. The Phoenicians shaped their third symbol to represent the head and
neck of a camel, an important means of the transportation by the Phoenicians
and called it ‘Gimel’. The Greeks later turned the character round and called it
‘Gamma’. The Romans also borrowed it, curved it and called it ‘C’. It must be
emphasized that, each character of our alphabets of 26 characters went through
systematic development for several centuries before they became formalized.

Development of lowercases
The word alphabet comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabets.
‘Alpha’ and ‘Beta’. The capital letters were the only forms that were used for
centuries. Scribes, Writers and Scholars developed the lowercase letters in the
middle ages as they copied manuscripts and books. As they copied the capital
letters, they rounded them, made them easier to write, and smaller so that they
did not use much space. They kept the original letters for the beginning of the
sentences and important words.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
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LETTERING SESSION 1
Development of Typefaces
Europeans dominated the development of typefaces initially, of which they
used the formalized Roman alphabets as the bases for developing other styles.
These developments went on through the art of broad pen writing
(Calligraphy) until the post Gothic era that marked the beginning of the
renaissance period. The renaissance spirit imbibed humanistic philosophies
into the psyche of the people which made many Europeans researched into
different aspects of their classical antiquity. This led to the invention of
moveable type by Johannes Gutenberg, a native of Mainz in Germany in 1440.
Gutenberg’s invention marked the beginning of commercial printing and
facilitated the development of press printing in the world. After Gutenberg’s
invention, many people became extremely interested in the craft of typography
and printing, these subsequently lead to the creation of different types of
typefaces up till date. Some renowned Europeans who contributed in typeface
development are Eric Gill, Baskerville, Bodoni, William Caxton and others.
Nowadays, different types of typesfaces are published in a book called
‘Letraset’.

The unit traced the development of Visual Communication from

pictograms to the development of alphabets. It described in a
chronology the unique developments that happened in each of the stages. The
session also discussed briefly the development of lowercase as well as the role
of Europe in the development of typefaces.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. State the three main stages of development of Visual Communication
predating the development of alphabets.

2. State the three main stages of the alphabetic era.

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 UNIT 1
SESSION 1

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 2

SESSION 2: CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES (ROMAN, SAN

SERIF AND SQUARE SERIF)

Dear learner, in this session, we are going discuss the concept of

typeface and emphasis on the fact that there are different types of
typeface produced by different people and organisations. Most of these
typefaces has similar features and characteristics so typographers have
classified them so that their distinctions can easily be identified. The session
will discuss some of the classifications.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. define a typeface
b. state the six major classification of typeface
c. discuss three of the six classifications of typefaces

Now read on….

2.1 Classification of Typefaces

The word typeface refers to a set of characters that have similar features and
which can be composed to write meaningful sentences. These Typefaces are
classified into six. The classifications are Roman, San Serif, Square serif, Text,
Script and Novelty. In this session, we will discuss Roman, San Serif and
Square serif typeface.

Roman Typeface
Roman typefaces have alternating thick and thin strokes. The vertical strokes
are generally thick whilst the horizontal strokes are usually thin. The strokes
have ornamental projections placed at their top and bottom ends called ‘serifs’
which beautify and give stability to the letters. Roman typefaces have many
shapes or types of serifs. These are: beak or bracketed, hairline, slab, round,
square and triangular serifs. Apart from the break serif which is always
bracketed, all other types of serifs can be bracketed or non-bracketed. Brackets
are the short arc that joins a stroke and a serif. (Breckhuizen 1992). Figure
1.2.1 are examples of types of serifs:

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 UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES
SESSION 2 (ROMAN, SAN SERIF AND SQUARE SERIF)

Round Hairline Triangular

Bracket

Beak/Bracketed Slab Square

Types of serif
Figure 1.2.1: Types of serifs

There are three main styles of Roman typefaces:

Old Roman Style: This Roman typeface has serifs that are rounded at the ends
and there is slight contrast between the thick and thin strokes which gives an
even face weight.

Modern Roman Style: These have the most extreme contrast between the thick
and thin strokes which give a bright and shadowed effect. Generally they have
thin straight bracketed slab serifs. The lowercases have very long ascenders
and descenders. They have large counters which make them more readable.

Transitional Roman Style: This is a combination of the old and modern styles.
The contrast between the thick and thin strokes is not as great as modern
Roman style. The serifs are fairly long and have smooth rounded ends.
Most Roman type styles are very legible. The shapes of the uppercase
characters combine well as well as the lowercases.

Uses: Because Roman typefaces have good legibility, they are used for all
kinds of Graphic communication design works such as newspapers, magazines,
books, posters, signage etc. Figure 1.2.2 are samples of types of Roman
typeface:

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
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LETTERING SESSION 2

Figure 1.2.2: types of Roman typeface

Sans - serif typeface (Gothic)

The word ‘SANS’ is a French word, which means without, and ‘SERIF’, on
the other hand, refers to the thin and sharp ornamental projections placed at the
ends of Roman characters. Therefore the name San serif means without serif.
This means that Gothic letters do not have serifs. Most Gothic letters have
uniform thickness in all their strokes. However, in some styles there are slight
variations in the stroke thickness whiles others have small non-bracketed
serifs. There are three basic styles of San serif letters:

Olden Block: This is commonly called block letters. It has uniform stroke
thickness but looks more rectangular in a vertical orientation like a block. The
curved sides are slightly drawn with short arcs either manually or with a pair of
compass.

Modem Block: They have alternate thin and thick strokes in their structure.
They also appear rectangular as the olden block letters.

Pure Gothic: These have uniform stroke thickness. All their curved letters are
circular in shape and the curves sides of the letters are also drawn with a pair
of compass to a perfect circle. An example is Gillsans typeface.

Uses: Because San serif typefaces do not have extended strokes in their
structure, they appear very simple and this makes them much legible than

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 UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES
SESSION 2 (ROMAN, SAN SERIF AND SQUARE SERIF)

Roman typeface. they are ideal for all kinds of Graphic communication design
works, especially, Posters, Banners, safety signs, commercial signs etc. It must
be emphasized that they are the best typeface for writing vehicle number
plates. Figure 1.2.3 are examples of San serif typeface:

PURE GOHTHIC
PURE GOHTHIC
Types of San serifs

Figure 1.2.3: Types of San serif

Square serif Typeface

These are a cross between Roman and Sans-Serif typefaces. They have
different kinds of serifs like Roman typefaces, but the only distinction between
them is that, square serifs have short, straight and rectangular ended serifs that
are not bracketed, rounded or pointed. They are available in straight standing
and italics. Square Serifs also have uniform strokes however; few have slight
alternate thickness in their strokes. Most square serif typefaces also have
geometric look with broad width. They are less legible then sans serifs and that
their use is restricted to some specific works such as setting headlines.

Uses: They are Suitable for newspaper headlines, letterheads, invitation cards
and advertisements. However, they are not suitable for Newspaper, Book or
Magazine body text. Figure 1.2.4 are samples of square serif typeface:

Figure 1.2.4: Samples of square Serif typeface

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 2

The session discussed the concept of typeface and classified

typeface into six. In addition, three of the classifications were
discussed into details. These are Roman, San serif and square typeface.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.2
1. Define typeface.

2. State TWO characteristics of each of the following class of typefaces:

a) Roman
b) San serif
c) Square serif

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 UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES
SESSION 2 (ROMAN, SAN SERIF AND SQUARE SERIF)

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
SESSION 3
LETTERING

SESSION 3: CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES (TEXT,

SCRIPT AND NOVELTY)

Dear learner, this session is the continuation of classification of

typeface. The session discuss the other classifications of typeface.
These include text, script and novelty.

Objective
By the end of this session, you will be able to discuss three other classifications
of typefaces
Now read on….

3.1 Text Typeface

These have heavy vertical and angular strokes. They are usually decorated with
extra strokes and thin lines. Text Typeface is somewhat difficult to read
therefore it is not often used in modern publications. It is sometimes used to
suggest a religious or reverent mood, because it is based on a style of broad
pen writing which has black strokes. Text typeface is sometimes called Old
English. The uppercase letters of Text typeface do not fit together well when
they are combined to form a word when compared to the lowercase letters.
Uses: The lowercases are commonly used by churches for writing biblical
quotations on wall hangings, writing citations, announcements, invitation cards
etc. The uppercase letters are often used as Drop caps. Figure 1.3.1 is an
example of a text typeface:

Figure 1.3.1: Samples of text typeface

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 UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES (TEXT,
SESSION 3 SCRIPT AND NOVELTY)
Script Typeface
The script typeface was developed by Scribes and Monks as they copied books
by hand. To secure time in producing individual text letters, the scribes began
connecting the letters. Script typefaces resemble handwriting or hand lettering.
They have both thick and thin strokes and are italics. There are two classes of
script typefaces:
 Those with letters that join
 Those with letters that do not join

In the letters that join, all the characters are joined to each other by a thin
stroke called ‘Link’. The script letters that do not join are sometimes called
‘Cursive’ letters. Some script letters have tiny and fragile strokes whiles others
have strong and bold strokes. Uppercase characters of script typefaces are a bit
difficult to read so they must not be used alone but combined with their
lowercase characters.

Uses: They are mostly used for advertisements, invitation cards, wall hangings
etc. In most cases, they are used to create emphasis on key words or sentences
in a text. Figure 1.3.2 are examples of script or cursive typeface:

Figure 1.3.2: Examples of script/cursive typeface

Novelty Typeface
The word novelty in this context means changing the style of an existing
typeface or creating a new style of typeface. Novelty types are typefaces in
which other elements have been used to embellish them, or their conventional

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
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SESSION 3
LETTERING
structures have been altered to create a new style. There are two classes of
novelty typefaces:

Conservative Type: This involves slightly altering a particular typeface by

either manipulating its shape or structure or adding other element(s) to it.
Elements that can be added are lines, dots, texture etc. Decorative and
Freestyle letters are examples of conservative novelty typefaces.

Contemporary type: With this type, the designer can use expressive drawings
or exaggerations to carry out a theme or mood. Example, broken shapes can be
used to write the word cracks. The designer can also change the style of a
particular typeface completely or create a new one provided it is legible. The
contemporary type extends beyond freestyle to include semantic lettering.

The basic ability needed to create novelty typefaces is creativity, drawing,

painting and idea development. Each novelty typeface has unique and distinct
characteristics because of that there is no hard-and-fast rule about composing
them in all capitals. The basic rule that guides the creation of novelty typeface
is that the characters must be legible to facilitate reading. Novelty letters can
be upright, italics or order wise. They are often eye catching.

Uses: Because of their expressive and decorative nature, they are ideal for
designing logos, book covers, posters and others. Novelty typefaces are also
used to create emphasis on a key word(s) or phrase(s) in a copy to attract
attention of readers. (Dennis, & Jenkins, 1991). Figure 1.3.3 are examples of
novelty typeface:

Figure 1.3.3: Examples of novelty typeface

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 UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEFACES (TEXT,
SESSION 3 SCRIPT AND NOVELTY)

The session continued discussions on classification of typeface.

It highlighted the characteristics and specific uses of text,
script/cursive and novelty typeface. Dear learner, now that you have acquired
knowledge on how typefaces are classified, and the unique characteristics of of
each of the classifications, we want you to apply your knowledge through
field research. Please identify samples of each of the six classifications of
typeface in newspapers, magazines, etc. Cut them out and paste them on A2
manila card and label them appropriately.

Note: Please, send your work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor
and course mates to discuss the work.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.3
1. State ONE characteristics of each of the following class of typeface:
a) Text
b) Script/cursive
c) Novelty

2. State ONE specific use of each class of typeface stated in question one.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 4

SESSION 4: ANATOMY AND CONSTITUENTS OF TYPEFACE

Dear learner, this session will introduce you to the anatomy of

typefaces. It will explore different parts of letters and their unique
characteristics. The session will also discuss the constituents of typeface such
as style, font and family of typeface. Please relax it is going to be an interesting
session.

Objectives
By the end of this course, you will be able to:
a. state parts of letters
b. identify parts of letters
c. describe parts of letters
d. illustrate parts of letters
e. State the constituents of typeface
f. Describe and illustrate the constituents of typeface stated

Now read on…

4.1 Anatomy of Typeface

Thick Strokes: These are the wider strokes of letters. They can be vertical,
horizontal or diagonal.

Thin Strokes: These are the narrow strokes of letters. They can be vertical,
horizontal or diagonal.

Serifs: These are the little extra strokes or ornamental projections used in
many kinds of types. They occur at the ends of the main character strokes to
finish the stroke. Not all typefaces have serifs. Serifs are mostly identified with
Roman and square serif typefaces. Serifs provide stability to the characters and
also beautify the letters.

Ascender: This is the part of the vertical stroke that extends above the body or
waistline of lowercase letters. It occurs in letters such as b, d, h, f, etc.

Descender: This is the part of the vertical stroke that extends below the
baseline of lowercase letters. This occurs in letters such as g, p, q etc.

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 UNIT 1 ANATOMY AND CONSTITUENTS OF TYPEFACE
SESSION 4
Counter: This is the open space within a letter. This space can be fully
enclosed as in o, b, p, etc. or partially closed as in n, u etc.

Lobe: The rounded portion of a letter, such as in b, p, d etc.

Arm: These are the horizontal strokes of the uppercase letters ‘E’ and ‘F’.

Bar: The horizontal strokes in letters like A, H, T, etc.

Link: A stroke connecting two characters. This normally occurs in script

letters.

Loop: The lower portion of some lowercase letters such as ‘g’.

Shoulder: The curved strokes or parts of letters such as ‘m,n,h’ etc.

Spine: The main curved stroke of the lower parts of the capital letter ‘S’.

Hairline: A thin stroke usually common to serif type styles.

Spur: A small projection of the main stroke found on many letters such as ‘F’.

Stem: Vertical or inclined strokes that hold the bar.

Swash: A fancy flourished design replacing a terminal or serif. They are found
in the uppercase letter Q.

Tail: A descender of the uppercase letter ‘R’.

Terminal: The end of a stroke not terminated with a serif.

‘X’ or Body Height: The distance from the baseline to the waistline of
lowercase letters such as x, b, d etc.

Baseline: The bottom line on which letters stand. Descenders extend below the
baseline.

Cap line: The top line where the height of uppercase and ascenders end.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 4
Drop Line: The bottom line on which descenders end.

Waistline: The horizontal line that determines the vertical height of the body
of lowercase letters.
Figures 1. 4.1 & 2 respectively are some parts of letters:

Figure 1.4.1: Parts of letters

Parts of letters continued

4.2 Constituents of a Typeface

Technically speaking, a typeface refers to a complete set of characters that
have unique and distinct identity as described in the six major classifications. It

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 UNIT 1 ANATOMY AND CONSTITUENTS OF TYPEFACE
SESSION 4
must be noted that the set of characters that constitute a particular typeface
come in the following forms: Styles and fonts.

4.3 Styles of a Typeface

Style in this context refers to the appearance of a particular typeface which is
always suggested in the thickness (Weight) or orientation (Position) of the
particular style. It must be emphasized that every typeface is produced in
variety of styles but each of the styles maintain the unique identity of the
typeface. For instance, all styles of Roman typeface have serifs, thick stroke
and thin stroke, and all styles of san serif typefaces do not have serifs.
Following are some of the styles in which typefaces are produced:

Medium style: This is the regular or conventional stroke thickness given to a

particular kind of typeface. Medium styles have normal face weight of the
standard size of the typeface.

Light style: This has tiny strokes and looks weaker and lanky. It does not have
good stability.

Bold style: This is slightly increased in face weight than the medium style. It
has more stability than the medium style.

Extra bold style: This has extremely heavy face weight than the bold style. It
has more stability than the bold style.

Condensed style: This has the normal width size of the typeface squeezed,
compressed or reduced so that they will have narrow counters. Condensed
letters occupy less space than normal and expanded letters,

Expanded style: The normal width size of the typeface is stretched or

increased to widen the counters. Expanded letters occupy more space than
normal and condensed letters.

Italic style: The term italics, is a generic word which is used to describe all
characters that slant forward at an angle of about 22 degrees. Italic styles are
mostly used to create attention or emphasis on a word or sentence in a copy.
Below are examples of different styles of Arial typeface (Landa 2010). Figure
1.4.3 are examples of styles of typeface:

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 4

Figure 1.4.3: Styles of typeface

Every style of a typeface is also produced in assortments of characters which

are combined conveniently to generate a word or sentence that develop and
build correct and meaningful communication. For instance, proper nouns must
be formed with uppercase and lowercase characters; postal addresses must be
formed with alphabets and numerals and so on. A font consists of four
different characters namely: uppercases, lowercases, numerals and punctuation
marks. It is the assortment of a particular style of a typeface that is referred to
as a font. It must be emphasized that, these family of type come in series of
sizes ranging from 6 points to 72 points for moveable or foundry type. Figure
1.4.4 are the elements of a font:
Uppercase ABCD
Lowercase abcd Fonts of a
Numerals 1234 Roman Typeface
Punctuation Marks .,:()/?-’”
Figure 1.4.4: Elements of a font

4.4 Family of Typeface

This refers to a range of sizes in which a particular style of typeface is
produced. For example the biggest and smallest point sizes produced in
foundry type are 72 points 6 points respectively. It is these range of sizes that
are referred to as the family of a typeface. Please, find a copy of Letraset (A
book containing different styles of a typeface) to examine the family of a
particular style of a typeface.

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 UNIT 1 ANATOMY AND CONSTITUENTS OF TYPEFACE
SESSION 4

The session discussed parts of letters and their unique

characteristics. It also discussed the constituents of typefaces and
used vivid illustrations to describe the parts and constituents. These
constituents are style, font and family of typeface.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.4
1. State FIVE parts of letters

2. Define each of the following terms used in typography:

i. Style of a typeface
ii. Font
iii. Family of typeface

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 5

SESSION 5: LETTERING TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Dear learner, we hope by now you have acquired basic knowledge

in typography? Great! In the subsequent sessions, we will
undertake practical activities so it is imperative that you get some knowledge
in lettering tools and materials. Based on that, in this session, we are going to
share with you some basic tools and materials used in lettering so relax as the
session unfolds.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. state some tools and materials used in lettering
b. describe the characteristics of the tools and materials used in lettering
c. describe specific uses of types of lettering tools and materials

Now read on…

5.1 Lettering Tools and Materials

HB pencil: It is used in conjunction with rulers to construct letters, or used
alone to draw letters. Pencils for letter construction must always be sharpened
to a conical or pointed tip.

A pair of compass: It is use to draw arcs or curved sides of letters and to draw
circular letters.

A pair of dividers: It is use to take and transfer measurements from ruler unto
the surface during letter construction.

Protractor: It is use to measure angles when constructing italic letters.

Metric rule: It is use to measure the thickness and sizes of letters and to guide
a pencil in drawing straight lines during letter construction.

Measuring tape: It is use to take measurement before setting out on a large

surface.

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 UNIT 1 LETTERING TOOLS AND MATERIALS
SESSION 5
Drawing board: A flat wooden board on which a paper is clipped or secured
with cellotape. The lettering is done on the paper.

Sharpeners: A piece of smooth grade sand paper on which a pencil lead is

rubbed to shape it when constructing letters. Sharp stencil knifes are also used
to sharpen pencils.

French curves: A plastic ruler designed in a special shape. It contains series of

different radius shapes that are adopted to draw uneven curved lines of arcs
during letter construction and inking of letters and designs.

Templates: A thin plastic disc or plate from which various sizes of geometrical
shapes such as circles, ellipse, squares, triangles etc. have been cut. The circle
shapes are used to draw arcs and some curved sides of letters during letter
construction.

Spray diffuser: This is a setup consisting of a small glass or plastic container

into which a thin straw-like plastic or metal pipe has been inserted through a
tight hole in the middle of the lid of the container. The container is filled with
colour mixed into light consistency to half or three-quarter full and covered
tightly with the lid. It must be noted that the tube must be inserted to suspend
in the colour. A bigger pipe similar to the size of the holder of a ball pen is
hooked or held firmly to the top end of the tube at 450 and the mouth is used to
blow air from the other end of the pipe in a high pressure to syphon the colour
upwards from the container through a gravitational force built up in the
container. The colour atomizes (explodes) at the tip of the tube to diffuse or
spatter the colour in fine drops unto the surface.

Lettering brushes: Two major types of brushes are used: sable and pure bristle.
The sable brush is ideal for lettering on smooth substrates such as papers,
painted wood, glass, metal, plastic and others, whiles pure bristles are suitable
for lettering on rough substrates such as plaster, asbestos, marbles etc. Even
though fillings of lettering brushes are available in different shapes, the
appropriate shape for lettering is the chisel-edged or the flat-edge.

Materials: Manila paper, art card, chipboard, bond sheet, newsprint, detailed
paper, tracing paper, eraser, paints, rotring inks, fixatives etc.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
LETTERING SESSION 5

The session discussed the characteristics and specific uses of

different types of lettering tools and materials. Tools such as
pencils, French curve, a pair of compass, a pair of divider, metric ruler, sable
brushes etc. were discussed.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 1.5
1. State ONE specific use of each of the following lettering tools:
a) Metric rule
b) A pair of compass
c) A pair of divider
d) Protractor
e) French curve

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 UNIT 1 LETTERING TOOLS AND MATERIALS
SESSION 5
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:
 Issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

28 CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
SESSION 6
LETTERING

SESSION 6: DETERMINING CONVENTIONAL SIZES OF

TYPEFACE AND MEASURING TYPE

Dear learner, this is the last session of unit one of this module. It
will mark the end of basic theory of typography. The session aims at
equipping you with knowledge in type measurement and conventional sizes of
Block letters, San serif and Roman letters. Please, try to memorise the
conventional sizes of the letters because you will need to apply them to
construct letters when doing lettering in the subsequent sessions.

Objectives
By the end of this course, you will be able to:
a) state the conventional sizes of Block, San serif and Roman letters A-Z
b) explain how foundry and electronic types are measured.

Now read on…

6.1 Measuring Type

The basic standard unit measurement used in typography is the ‘Pica’ which
equals 1/16 (approximately 4mm). The pica can be divided into 12 equal parts
called ‘points’. There are 12 points in one Pica and 72 points in 1 inch. The
typographers’ rule used for measuring points and Pica is called a ‘line gauge’.

There are two basic type size systems used in typography:

 Foundry Type Size System
 Electronic/Computer Type Size System

With foundry type, the sizes range from 6 points to 72 points. However, larger
sizes are available for bigger headlines and posters.

The electronic type system used in Desktop publishing however, uses different
unit measurements such as Millimetres (mm), Centimetres (cm), Inches (‘’),
Points and Picas. Most typesetting software permit the operator to adjust the
standard type sizes electronically to larger sizes that are not in the standard size
range. In typography, the sizes of types are grouped into two according to the
specific roles types play in a Copy:

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 UNIT 1 DETERMINING CONVENTIONAL SIZES OF
SESSION 6 TYPEFACE AND MEASURING TYPE
Body or Text Type: These refer to sizes of typefaces that range from 6 points
to 16 points. These sizes are often used to set or build the body of a text. The
standard point size for setting body text is 12 points. Text type is used for
general reading materials such as Newspapers, Books, Magazines, Handouts
etc. The text type you are reading now is 12 points.

Display Types: These are typefaces that are larger than 18 points. They are use
for headlines, captions, Posters etc.

6.2 Sizes of Letters

Size in this context refers to width sizes of letters. Basically letters can be
constructed to three different width sizes:

6.2.1 Normal Width Sizes of Letters

These are the universally approved width sizes for some conventional letters.
Below are the normal width sizes of different types of letters in uppercase.
Figure 1.6.1 and 1.6.2 are the normal width sizes for block letters, San Serif
and Roman letters respectively:

Block and Modern block letters

A=3/5 or 4/5 I=1/5 Q=3/5
B=3/5 J=3/5 R=3/5
C=3/5 K=3/5 or 4/5 S=3/5
D=3/5 L=3/5 T=3/5
E=3/5 M=5/5 U=3/5
F=3/5 N=3/5 or 4/5 V=3/5 or 4/5
G=3/5 O=3/5 W=6/5
H=3/5 P=3/5 X=3/5 or 4/5
Y=3/5 or 4/5
Z=3/5

Figure 1.6.1: Normal width sizes for block letters

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DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
AND THEORIES OF TYPOGRAPHY AND UNIT 1
SESSION 6
LETTERING
Pure Gothic and Roman letters
A=5/8 or 6/8 I=1/8 Q=8/8
B=4/8 J=4/8 R=4/8
C=7/8 K=5/8 or 6/8 S=4/8
D=7/8 L=4/8 T=5/8
E=4/8 M=8/8 or 9/8 U=5/8 or 6/8
F=4/8 N=5/8 V=5/8 or 6/8
G=7/8 O=8/8 W=9/8
H=4/8 P=4/8 X=5/8
Y=7/8 or 8/8
Z=4/8

Figure 1.6.2: Normal width sizes for San serif and Roman letters

To interpret the sizes given above, it can be noted that the numerator is not a
constant figure but changes whiles the denominator remains constant. The
numerator represents the width of the letters whiles the denominator represents
the height of the letters. The numerator varies because characters of typefaces
have different sizes and shapes. For instance, ‘W’ is the widest letter whiles ‘I’
is the smallest letter.

A practical way of obtaining the width sizes of the letters is to cut a strip of
paper to the height of the letters and divide it into five or eight equal parts or
units, thus 5/5 for block letters and 8/8 for Gothic and Roman letters
respectively. Use the units to determine the width of each letter. For example,
for block letters, letter ‘A’ will take 3 or 4 units, ‘I’ will take 1 unit, ‘W’ will
take 6 units etc. and for Gothic letters, ‘A’ will take 5 or 6 units, ‘I’ will take 1
unit, ‘W’ will take 9 units etc. Note that the number of units used must
correspond to the numerators provided in the letter sizes.

How to Determine Medium Stroke Thickness of Letters

Olden block letters: Divide the vertical height of the letters into five equal
units and take one unit to be the thickness. E.g. If the height of the block letter
is 10cm the thickness can be calculated as follows:
Thickness=height/5=10/5=2cm.

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 UNIT 1 DETERMINING CONVENTIONAL SIZES OF
SESSION 6 TYPEFACE AND MEASURING TYPE
Modern block letters: For the thick stroke, use the same method used for
olden block letters. However, the thin stroke must be half the size of the thick
stroke and not more than three quarters of the thickness of the thick stroke.

Pure Gothic and Roman letters: Divide the vertical height of the letters into
eight equal units and take one unit to be the thickness of the thick strokes. For
Roman letters, the thin stroke must not be less than half the size of the thick
stroke unless a hairline is used as the thin stroke. E.g. If the vertical height of
the letters is 16cm the thick stroke can be calculated as follows: Thick
stroke=height/8=16/8=2cm and the thin is 1cm.

The session discussed type measurement system for foundry and

electronic generated type faces. It was highlighted that the biggest
size of foundry type is 72 points whiles the smallest size is 6 points. Electronic
type however, do not have a size limit because a figure can be input for any
size.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.6
1. State the appropriate sizes of each of the following types
a) Display type
b) Body type

2. State the conventional width sizes of each of the following uppercase

San serif typeface:
a) I
b) W
c) D
d) E

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE LETTERING
UNIT 2

UNIT 2: CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE LETTERING

Unit Outline
Session 1: Construction and Painting of Uppercase Block Letters with
Numerals
Session 2: Construction and Painting of Uppercase San Serif with Numerals
Session 3: Construction and Painting of Uppercase Roman Letters with
Numerals
Session 4: Principles of Spacing
Session 5: Principle of Decorative Lettering
Session 6: Construction of Types of Decorative Lettering (Outline, in-line,
Reverse Lettering and Decorative Painted Letters)

Dear learner, this unit aims at introducing you to the practical

application of the theories of typography you studied in the earlier
sessions. In this unit you will be tasked to construct and paint letters A-Z and
numerals of the three main conventional typefaces to their normal sizes and
shapes: Block, Classical San Serif and Classical Roman letters. The session
will also discuss the principles of spacing as applied in lettering and discuss the
concept and scope of decorative lettering and produce some.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. construct and paint uppercase letters A-Z and numerals 0-9 of block,
San serif and Roman letters;
2. discuss principles of spacing;
3. discuss the concept of decorative lettering as applied in lettering and
typography;
4. construct different types of decorative lettering; and
5. create your own version of decorative typeface.

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 CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE LETTERING
UNIT 2

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 1

SESSION 1: CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF

UPPERCASE BLOCK LETTERS WITH
NUMERALS
Dear learner, this session is a complete practicum. You will be
tasked to construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of block letters
and fill-in (Paint).

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of block letters to correct sizes
and shape
b. Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of block letters to correct sizes
and shape and fill-in(paint)

Now lets do the practical activities

1. Practical Activity: Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of block
letters to correct sizes and shape and paint.
You will require the following items for the exercise:
 A2 white Manila card
 Metric Rule
 A pair of dividers
 A pair of compass
 French curve
 Drawing Board
 HB pencil
 Cutter
 Eraser
 Different sizes of sable brushes
 Poster Colour/Acrylic paint

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 CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF
UNIT 2 UPPERCASE BLOCK LETTERS WITH
SESSION 1 NUMERALS
 Can
 Palette board
 Rag
 Water
Procedure
 Set out the manila card on the drawing board
 Measure and rule 1cm borderline around the sheet
 Use fain marks to block-in the sizes of the letters on the card to
determine the correct sizes to be used for the lettering
 Measure 1cm space below the top borderline and rule the line to obtain
the cap line
 Stand on the cap line and measure the height of the letters and rule the
line to obtain two horizontal parallel lines.
 Using the conventional normal sizes of block letters as a guide,
measure the size (width) of letter A and construct.
 Follow the guidelines your course tutor will give you to construct the
rest of the letters and all the numerals.
 Upon completion of the letter construction, mix your colour to a
medium consistency and use the sable brushes to paint the letters
individually.
Note: Ensure that you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the
paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 1
Figure 2.1.1 is sample of painted block letters A-Z and numerals:

Figure 2.1.1: Sample of painted block letters A-Z and numerals:

The session tasked students to use the conventional sizes of block

letters to construct the uppercase A-Z and numerals 0-9 of block
letters and paint.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.1
1. State ONE factor to consider when constructing each of the following
upper case block letters:
a) B
b) I
c) W
d) S

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 CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF
UNIT 2 UPPERCASE BLOCK LETTERS WITH
SESSION 1 NUMERALS
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:
 Issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

38 CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE
LETTERING UNIT 2
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF

UPPERCASE SAN SERIF WITH NUMERALS
Dear learner, this session is a continuation of the lettering practical
exercises. Again, you will be tasked to construct upper cases A-Z
and numerals of San serif and fill-in (Paint).

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of classical San serif letters to
correct sizes and shape
b. Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of classical San serif letters to
correct sizes and shape and fill-in(paint)

Now lets do the practical activities

Practical Activity: Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of classical San
serif letters to correct sizes and shape and paint.

You will require the following items for the exercise:

 A2 white Manila card
 Metric Rule
 A pair of dividers
 A pair of compass
 French curve
 Drawing Board
 HB pencil
 Cutter
 Eraser
 Different sizes of sable brushes

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 UNIT 2 CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF
SESSION 2 UPPERCASE SAN SERIF WITH NUMERALS
 Poster Colour/Acrylic paint
 Can
 Palette board
 Rag
 Water

Procedure
Please, follow similar procedure you used to construct and fill-in the block
letters to do this exercise. However, you must observe the following important
points:
 Use 8cm height and divide it into eight(8) and use the divisions to
determine the correct sizes of each letters.(Please, use the conventional
sizes provided as a guide)
 All curved parts of each of the letters must be drawn with a compass.
Note: Ensure that you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the
paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

Figure 2.2.1 is sample of painted classical San serif letters A-Z and numerals:

Figure 2.2.1: Sample of painted classical San serif letters A-Z and numerals:

40 CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE
LETTERING UNIT 2
SESSION 2

The session tasked students to use the conventional sizes of San

serif letters to construct the uppercase A-Z and numerals 0-9 of
classical San serif and Roman letters and paint.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 2.2
1. State ONE factor to consider when constructing each of the following
classical upper case San serif letters:
a) R
b) H

CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology 41

 UNIT 2 CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF
SESSION 2 UPPERCASE SAN SERIF WITH NUMERALS
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:
 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

42 CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 3

SESSION 3: CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF

UPPERCASE ROMAN LETTERS WITH
NUMERALS
Dear learner, this session is a continuation of the lettering practical
exercises. Again, you will be tasked to construct upper cases A-Z
and numerals of classical letters and fill-in (Paint).

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of classical Roman letters to
correct sizes and shape
b. Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of classical Roman letters to
correct sizes and shape and fill-in(paint)

Now let us do the practical activities

Practical Activity: Construct upper cases A-Z and numerals of classical

Roman letters to correct sizes and shape and paint.

You will require the following items for the exercise:

 A2 white Manila card
 Metric Rule
 A pair of dividers
 A pair of compass
 French curve
 Drawing Board
 HB pencil
 Cutter
 Eraser
 Different sizes of sable brushes

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 CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF
UNIT 2 UPPERCASE ROMAN LETTERS WITH
SESSION 3
NUMERALS
 Poster Colour/Acrylic paint
 Can
 Palette board
 Rag
 Water
Procedure
Please, follow similar procedure you used to construct and fill-in the classical
San serif letters to do this exercise. However, you must observe the following
important points:
 The apex of letter A must be point and extend slightly above the cap
line
 All outer curved of the letters must be drawn with a compass.
 The inner curves of the letters can be drawn with freehand
 The outer curves of all circular letters such as G, O, Q etc. Must be
drawn to extend slightly above the cap line and drop line.
 All serifs must be constructed with a beak serif. (Stewards, 1985).
Note: Ensure that you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the
paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

44 CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 3

Figure 2.2.1 is sample of painted classical San serif letters A-Z and numerals:

Figure 2.2.1: Sample of painted classical San serif letters A-Z and numerals:

The session tasked students to use the conventional sizes of

classical Roman letters to construct the uppercase A-Z and
numerals 0-9 of the letters and paint.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 2.3
1. State ONE factor to consider when constructing each of the following
classical upper case Roman letters:
a) A
b) O

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 CONSTRUCTION AND PAINTING OF
UNIT 2 UPPERCASE ROMAN LETTERS WITH
SESSION 3
NUMERALS
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:
 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

46 CoDEUCC/BEd/BSc Information Technology

CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 4

SESSION 4: PRINCIPLES OF SPACING

Dear learner, now that you can construct and paint conventional
letters correctly, you should be able to construct the letters to form
meaningful sentences. To be able to do that effectively, you must understand
basic principles of spacing as applied in lettering and visual communication.
This session therefore aims at introducing you to the basic concept of spacing
and their applications in lettering and visual communication.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to.
1. explain the concept spacing as applied in lettering and visual
communication
2. explain types of spacing
3. state rule of thumbs used in optical spacing
4. illustrate how rules of thumb of optical spacing are applied in lettering
and visual communication

Now read on…

Spacing
This is the art of leaving gaps or intervals between letters, words and
sentences. To achieve mastery in lettering, lettering students must have
adequate knowledge in the rule of thumb. Rule of thumb is the principle of
spacing letters, words and sentences in lettering and typography in which all
spaces appear optically equal. There are two major categories of spacing
applied in lettering:

Mechanical Spacing
This is a kind of spacing in which equal physical measurements are left
between letters, words and sentences irrespective of the shape of individual
letters meeting one another. This kind of spacing is very cheap and easy as
such, it is mostly preferred by young and amateur letterers. Even though
mechanical spacing is easy, it is a wrong method of spacing letters as
compared to optical spacing. Mechanical spacing creates disunity in the letters
used in words and sentences and also creates inconsistencies in reading. It is
therefore not accepted in professional practice. Figure 2.4.1 is an illustration of
mechanical spacing:

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 UNIT 2 PRINCIPLES OF SPACING
SESSION 4

Figure 2.4.1: illustration of mechanical spacing

Optical Spacing
This is the art of using ones eyes to space or live gaps between letters, words
and sentences during lettering according to the shape of the letters meeting
each other or ending words in a sentence. With optical spacing, the spaces left
between the letters must not take the same physical measurements; rather, they
must be given to appear optically equal. Optical spacing is completely opposite
to mechanical spacing. It is a bit difficult in practice than mechanical spacing
as such amateur letterers found it extremely difficult to apply in their works.
Optical spacing can be mastered through self-discipline, constant practice and
thorough understanding of the principles of letter spacing. Good optical
spacing facilities easy reading of words, creates unity and consistency in the
letters. It also enhances the beauty and the communicative power of the words
or sentences. There are three main types of optical spacing and each is guided
by specific ‘rule of thumb’:

Letter Spacing
This is the art of gapping letters when constructing, drawing or writing words.
Below are principles of letter spacing:
1. When two straight-sided letters meet, the gap should be widened. E.g.
ND, HR, HL, HD, HB, etc.
2. When a straight-sided letter meets with curved or circular letter, the
gap should be slightly closed. E.g. OL, OA, OF, OH, ON, etc.
3. When a straight-sided letter meets with an opened-sided letter the gap
can be normal or slightly closed. E.g. AE, AL, IA, TE, LA, LE, LI,
AP, etc.
4. When letter ‘I’ meets a straight-sided letter, the gap must be
extremely widened. E.g. IN, MI, IR, IF, IE, JK, etc.
5. When two curved or circular letters meet, the gap must be extremely
closed. E.g. OO, DO, OG, OC, QO, etc.
6. When circular letters meet with angular letters, the gap must overlap.
E.g OA, AC, VO, etc.

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 4
7. When two angular letter meet, the gap must overlap or be slightly
closed. E. g. VA, AA, WA, etc.
8. When an angular letter meets with an open-sided letter, the gap must
kerned or overlap. E. g. TA, YA, LV, LT, etc.
9. When the letters B, R, S, U, and J meet each other, the gap must be
normal.

Figure 2.4.2 is an illustration of how rule of thumb for letter spacing are
applied in lettering:

Figure 2.4.2: illustration of how rule of thumb for letter spacing are applied
in lettering

Word Spacing
This is the art of leaving spaces or intervals between words in a sentence. The
principle of word spacing states that, the gaps between words in a sentence
must not be more than the height of the letters and not less than half the height
of the letters.

Line Spacing
This is the art of leaving gaps or intervals between sentences vertically. The
principle of line spacing states that, the gaps between two or more sentences
must not be more than the height of the letters and not less than half the height
of the letters.

The session discussed the concept of spacing applied in lettering

and Visual Communication. It distinguished between mechanical
and optical spacing and highlighted on rule of thumb for letter spacing, word
spacing and line spacing as the most applicable in lettering and Visual
Communication.

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 UNIT 2 PRINCIPLES OF SPACING
SESSION 4

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.4
1. Define spacing as applied in lettering

2. State the TWO main types of spacing

3. State THREE types of optical spacing

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 5

SESSION 5: PRINCIPLE OF DECORATIVE LETTERING

Dear learner, do you remember that, when we discussed
constituents of typeface, we said that all typefaces are produced in
a particular style and gave examples of styles of typeface as bold, extra-bold,
italicised, condensed, expanded and others. Decorative is also another style in
which typefaces are designed. So in this session, we are going to explore the
concept of decorative lettering and how they are applied in Visual
Communication. Please relax, it is going to be an interesting session.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. explain the concept of decorative lettering
b. describe types of decorative lettering
c. construct and paint types of decorative lettering
d. creative your own version of decorative letters

Now read on…

Concept and Scope of Decorative Lettering

Decorative lettering is a style of lettering in which other elements such as lines,
textures, shapes, colours, shadows or objects are used to create, embellish,
beautify or emphasize letters. Various types of decorative lettering are
available. The major ones are:
 Outline Lettering
 Inline Lettering
 Shaded Lettering
 Reverse Lettering
 Decorative Painting

Outline Lettering
This is a style of lettering in which the actual letters are constructed with a thin
outline. Figure 2.5.1 is an example of outline lettering:

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 UNIT 2 PRINCIPLE OF DECORATIVE LETTERING
SESSION 5

Figure 2.5.1: Outline lettering

In-line Lettering
This is a kind of lettering in which the actual letter is painted and another thin
outline provided around it which is separated from the main letter with a thin
gap. Figure 2.5.2 is an example of in-line lettering:

Figure 2.5.2 is In-line lettering:

Reverse Lettering
This is a kind of lettering in which the surroundings (Negative areas) are
shaded or painted leaving the actual letters (Positive areas) to show the
background colour. Figure 2.5.3 is an example of reverse lettering:

REVERSE
Figure 2.5.3: Reverse lettering:

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 5
Shaded Lettering
Letter shading is the art of casting an image or shadow to a letter or word to
create illusion of three-dimension. To be able to cast shadows to letters, words
and shapes correctly, the letterer must have a fundamental knowledge in how
light travels in space. According to physics, light rays travel parallel in space to
infinity. However, when an opaque object blocks the light rays the light will
tilt and form an image of the object on the ground from the base of the object
at the opposite side of the source of light. This natural principle of light forms
the bases for creating shadows in lettering.

Principles of Letter Shading

1. There must be a source of light to the letter.
2. Always the shadow must be cast to the letter at the opposite side of the
source of light. E.g. if the light source is from west, the shadow must be
cast to east and vice versa.
3. The shadow must be painted or shaded darker than the actual letter.
4. Block or drop shadows must be projected at 45°.

Styles of Shaded Letters

Block Shading
This is also called drop shading. It is a style of letter shading in which the
shadow lines are projected from the angular ends of the letters to tilt at an
angle of 45°. With drop shadows, a diminishing line determines the length of
the shadow, which is always parallel to the side of the letter. Figure 2.5.4 is an
example of block shading:

ABCDEFGHI
JKL MNOPQR
STUVWXYZ
Drop shadow

Figure 2.5.4: Block shading:

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 UNIT 2 PRINCIPLE OF DECORATIVE LETTERING
SESSION 5
Side Shading
This is a style of shading in which the shadow lines are cast to be in line with
the height of the letters at one side. Below is the example of side shading:

Cast Shading
With cast shading, the shadow is cast to appear as if the actual letter is shifted
slightly to one side of it either upwards or downwards depending on the
direction of the source of light. Figure 2.5.5 is an example of cast shading:

ABBCCD
DEE FF G
GHH II
JK
J KLLMMNNOOP PQQRR
SST
TUUVVW
WX XYYZZ
Cast shadow

Figure 2.5.5 Cast shading:

Infinity Shading
This is a style of shading in which all the shadow lines are projected from the
angular ends of the letter(s) to converge at one vanishing point. With infinity-
shading, the vanishing point can be located at any point to the letter or word
either upwards or downwards. Infinity shading is mostly used for monograms
and slogans than individual letters unless in situations where special emphasis
is required. Figure 2.5.6 is an example of infinity shading:

KWAJAK Infinity shading

Figure 2.5.6: Infinity shading

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 5
Decorative Painting
This is a style of painting a letter or word in which the lettering is painted in
strips of varying tones of polychromatic or monochromatic colour schemes.
The painted letters are usually given a dark outline or shadow. In decorative
painting, the strips can be created in any form such as vertical, horizontal,
inclined, contour etc. Figure 2.5.7 is an example of a framework that can be
used to produce decorative painting:

Black outline

Tint 1
Hue(Blue)
Tint 2
Tint 1
Hue(Yellow)
Tint 2
Tint 1
Hue(Red)
Tint 2
Tint 1
Hue(Green)
Tint 2
Decorative painting
Figure 2.5.7: Framework that can be used to produce decorative painting

The session discussed the concept of decorative lettering as applied

in Visual Communication. It highlighted on unique characteristics
of different types of decorative lettering such as outline, in-line, reverse,
shaded lettering and decorative painting and tasked the learners to practice how
to produce the various types of decorative lettering as well as creating their
own style of decorative lettering.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.5
1. Define decorative lettering.

2. State FOUR types of decorative lettering used in Visual Communication

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 UNIT 2 PRINCIPLE OF DECORATIVE LETTERING
SESSION 5

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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CONVENTIONAL AND CREATIVE UNIT 2
LETTERING SESSION 6

SESSION 6: CONSTRUCTION OF TYPES OF

DECORATIVE LETTERING (OUTLINE, IN-
LINE, REVERSE LETTERING AND SHADED
LETTERS)
Dear learner, this last session of unit 2 aims at tasking you to
practice how to produce the types of decorative lettering discussed
in in session 5. We entreat you to be very diligent and do all the practical
assignments we will ask you to do. We hope you will enjoy this session.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. construct and paint outline letters
b. construct and paint in-line letters
c. construct and paint reverse letters
d. construct and paint different types of shaded letters

Now lets do the practical exercises…

Practical Assignment 1
Using classical uppercase San serif letters and principles of optical spacing,
construct and paint each of the following words in decorative lettering:
a) TOYOTA-Outline
b) WAHALA-Inline
c) REVERSE-Reverse

Please, construct and paint all the three words on a white A2 Manila card.

Note: Ensure that you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the
paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF TYPES OF DECORATIVE
UNIT 2 LETTERING (OUTLINE, IN-LINE, REVERSE
SESSION 6 LETTERING AND SHADED LETTERS)
Practical Assignment 2
Construct uppercase block letters A-Z in the following shaded lettering and
paint:
a) Drop shading
b) Cast shading

Note: Please, paint the actual letters as well as the shadows. However, the
shadows must be painted in a black colour. Also, construct and paint each
work on a separate white A2 Manila card and ensure that you paint to obtain
sharp edges and good coverage of the paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

The session was a practicum which tasked learners to practice how

to produce the various types of decorative lettering such as outline,
in-line, reverse and shaded lettering.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 2.6
1. State TWO principles to observe when casting shadows to letters.

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING
UNIT 3

UNIT 3: DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING

Unit Outline
Session 1: Construction of Decorative Painted Letters and Creating Decorative
Typeface
Session 2: Principles of Freestyle and Semantic Lettering
Session 3: Creation of Freestyle Letters with Objects
Session4: Creation of Freestyle Letters with Shapes
Session 5: Freehand and Semantic Lettering
Session 6: Concentric Lettering

Dear learner, this unit is a continuation of lettering but it will further

explore other types of decorative lettering and how you can create
your own version of decorative letters. The unit will also expose you to the
concept of creative lettering and how they are applied in in Visual
Communication. Please relax, this also going to be another interesting unit.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. construct decorative painted letters;
2. create decorative typeface;
3. explain freestyle and semantic lettering;
4. create freestyle letters with objects;
5. create freestyle letters with shapes;
6. write letters in freehand;
7. do semantic lettering;
8. explain the concept of concentric lettering; and
9. construct words in concentric circles

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 DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING
UNIT 3

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: CONSTRUCTION OF DECORATIVE PAINTED

LETTERS AND CREATING DECORATIVE
TYPEFACE
Dear learner, this session marks the end of decorative lettering. In this
unit, we will task you to further practical exercises on decorative
lettering. This time, you will practice how to decorate letters with colour and
also create your own version of decorative letters.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. decorate letters with colour; and
b. create new versions of decorative letters

Now lets do the practical exercises…

Practical Exercise 1: Construct decorative painted letters

Using uppercase block lettering and principles of letter spacing, construct the
word BEAUTIFUL and paint in decorative painting. Then give it an outline and
a cast shadow. Please you can use the framework in figure 2.5.7 as a guide or
you can create your own style.

Note: Please, construct and paint the work on a white Manila card and ensure
that you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

Practical Exercise 2: Creation of decorative letters

Use your knowledge and skills in idea development, painting and decorative
lettering to create your own style of decorative lettering A-Z. The work must be
painted on a white A2 Manila card.

Note: Please, construct and paint the work on a white Manila card and ensure
that you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the paint.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF DECORATIVE PAINTED
UNIT 3 LETTERS AND CREATING DECORATIVE
SESSION 1 TYPEFACE
Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates for jury
the work.

The session tasked learners to apply their knowledge and skills in

painting, lettering, creativity and idea development to use paint to
decorate letters and also created their own versions of decorative letters.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 3.1
1. State ONE factor to consider when creating new decorative letters

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: PRINCIPLES OF FREESTYLE AND

SEMANTIC LETTERING
Dear learner, we hope you have now acquired enough knowledge
and skills in decorative lettering. Great! In this session, we are going
to introduce you another type of lettering called creative lettering which is
similar to decorative lettering but slightly advanced. These types of creative
lettering we are going to study are freestyle lettering and semantic lettering. We
assure you that it is going to be another interesting session.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. explain the different between freestyle lettering and semantic lettering
b. discuss the uses and importance of freestyle and semantic lettering in
Visual communication
c. discuss the qualities and competencies required to create effective
freestyle lettering and do semantic lettering

Now lets read on…

2.1 Concept of Freestyle Lettering

Freestyle letting is the art of creating letters with found objects in the
environment. These objects could be natural or artificial. For example beans,
sugarcane, leaves, sticks, candle, pen, vegetable, nail, pencil, etc. Freestyle
letters can also be created with regular and irregular shapes or forms. Basically,
freestyle lettering is unique style of lettering different from the normal
convectional lettering. It falls under the novelty class of typeface (Amenuke,
Dogbe, Asare, Ayiku, & Baffoe 1999).

2.2 Principles of Freestyle Lettering

 When creating freestyle letters, the object or shape must maintain its
basic identity in all the letters.
 The shapes of the object can be arranged into a well-constructed
conventional typeface, manipulated or arranged in a unique style to
create new style of letters.

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 UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF FREESTYLE AND
SESSION 2 SEMANTIC LETTERING
 The letterer must observe good principles of spacing and legibility in
each freestyle letter that is created . Figure 3.1.1 are examples of freestyle
lettering:

Figure 3.1.1: Examples of freestyle lettering

Semantic Lettering
Semantic lettering is the art of writing words to express, depict or suggest their
meaning or idea. This form of lettering is also known as word semantics. For
example, bones can be used to write the words death or bones, thick and thin
strokes can be used to write the words stability or lanky respectively. The basic
difference between freestyle lettering and semantic lettering is that in freestyle
lettering, even though any object or shape can be used to write a word, the object
or shape should not necessarily suggest the meaning of the word. For example a
pencil can be manipulated to write any word such as Good, Food, etc. However,
in semantic lettering, the object pencil can be manipulated to write the word
pencil. Bones can be used to write death, and others (Meggs 1992). Figures 3.1.2
& 3 are examples of semantic lettering:

Figures 3.1.2: Example of semantic lettering

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 2

Figures 3.1.3: Example of semantic lettering

Skills or Competencies Required to Produce Good Freestyle and Semantic

Lettering
Creative lettering is a high imaginative exercise therefore, it is important that the
letterer must have some abilities that he/she can apply to create them effectively:
following are some suggested abilities and skills that are needed for effective
creative lettering lettering:
 Good drawing skills
 Good painting skills
 High imaginative ability
 Fluency in idea generation
 Flexibility in idea generation
 Knowledge and skills in application of principles of design
 Good sense of composition
 Originality in idea generation
 Ability to select and apply harmonious colour schemes
 Etc.

Uses or Importance of Creative Lettering in Visual Communication

 Use to design posters, signage, banners, billboards, packages, etc.
 They are used to create emphasis of an important word or phrase in a text
 They catch the attention of viewers to read the message on a graphic
communication work
 They help to accentuate or amplify the meaning of a word or phrase in a
text
 They enhance the beauty of graphic communication works

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 UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF FREESTYLE AND
SESSION 2 SEMANTIC LETTERING

The session discussed the concept of creative lettering and their

application in Visual communication. The discussion was focused
on freestyle lettering and semantic lettering. The discussions indicated that
freestyle lettering only uses natural or man-made objects and shape in the
environment to create letters and write words which do not necessarily connote
the meaning of the word, but semantic lettering use objects or elements to write
words that connote their meaning.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.2
1. Define freestyle lettering

2. Define semantic lettering

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: CREATION OF FREESTYLE LETTERS WITH

OBJECTS
Dear learner, now that you have acquired basic knowledge on
creative lettering, we want to task you to do some practical exercises
on them so that you will develop the necessary skills you need to apply them in
your career. We entreat you to show much commitment towards these exercises.
Good luck.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. use found natural objects in the environment to create freestyle letters.
b. use found artificial objects in the environment to create freestyle letters.

Now let us do the practical exercise…

Practical Exercise 1: Creasing Freestyle Lettering with Natural Objects

Use any interesting natural object in your environment to create the following
fonts in freestyle letters:
 Uppercase A-Z
 Numerals 0-9
 Punctuation marks

Practical Exercise 2: Creasing Freestyle Lettering with Artificial Objects

Use any interesting artificial object in your environment to create the following
fonts in freestyle letters:
 Uppercase A-Z
 Numerals 0-9
 Punctuation marks

Note: Please, produce each of the works on a white Manila card and ensure that
you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

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 UNIT 3 CREATION OF FREESTYLE LETTERS
SESSION 3 WITH OBJECTS
The session was a complete practicum. It tasked the learners to
apply their knowledge and skills in drawing, painting, design,
colour, and idea development to create freestyle letters with natural and artificial
objects.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 3.3
1. State FOUR skills and competencies you used in creating the freestyle
lettering

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: CREATION OF FREESTYLE LETTERS WITH

SHAPES
Dear learner, this session is a continuation of the practical activities
in freestyle lettering. In this session, we are going to task you
further to use shapes to create freestyle letters. Please put in the same effort as
you did in session 3.

Objective
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. use a regular shape to create freestyle letters; and
b. use an irregular shape to create freestyle letters

Now let us do the practical exercise…

Practical Exercise 1: Creasing Freestyle Lettering with a Regular Shape

Use any interesting regular shape to create the following fonts in freestyle letters:
 Uppercase A-Z
 Numerals 0-9
 Punctuation marks

Practical Exercise 2: Creasing Freestyle Lettering with an Irregular Shape

Use any interesting irregular shape to create the following fonts in freestyle
letters:
 Uppercase A-Z
 Numerals 0-9
 Punctuation marks

Note: Please, produce each of the works on a white Manila card and ensure that
you paint to obtain sharp edges and good coverage of the paint.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

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 UNIT 3 CREATION OF FREESTYLE LETTERS WITH
SESSION 4 SHAPES

The session was a continuation of freestyle practical exercises. It

tasked the learners to apply their knowledge and skills in drawing,
painting, design, colour, and idea development to create freestyle letters with
regular and irregular shapes.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.4
1. State FOUR challenges to faced when you were creating the freestyle
letters

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: FREEHAND AND SEMANTIC LETTERING

Dear learner, this session will further task you to do more practical
exercises in creative lettering. However, this time the focus will be on
freehand lettering and creating semantic letters. Please put in the same effort as
you did in session 4.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. use freehand to write conventional letters
b. use freehand to write freestyle letters
c. use objects or elements to write words in semantic lettering

Now let us do the practical exercise…

Concept of Freehand Lettering

In graphic communication design, the term freehand lettering means the art or
process of doing lettering directly with colour to depict the correct shapes and
sizes of the letters without using drawing instruments. It must be emphasized
that, this type of lettering can be mastered through constant practice because, it
requires the application of high level of craftsmanship and experience.

Practical Exercise 1: Freehand Lettering

Using only colour and a sable brush, write the uppercase of classical San serif
typeface in the following fonts:
 Uppercase A-Z
 Numerals 0-9
 Punctuation marks

You will Require the following Items for the Exercise

 White A2 Manila card
 HB pencil
 Sable brush
 Poster colour/Acrylic paint
 Can rag
 Palette
 Metric rule

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 UNIT 3 FREEHAND AND SEMANTIC LETTERING
SESSION 5
Procedure
 Rule cap lines and drop lines to determine the height of the letters
 Use thumbnail sketches to plan the positions of the letters on the sheet
 Mix your colour to a medium consistency in a can
 Print uppercase characters of the fonts on a sheet of paper and put it by
your side and use it as a guide to write or mimic the letters on the sheet.
 Dip the brush into the colour and begin to write or mimic the letters to
fit into the cap line and drop line.

Please, make sure you try and write each letter to obtain correct shape and size.

Practical Exercise 2: Creating Semantic Lettering

Write each of the following words in semantic lettering:
 Cracked
 Compressed
 Reflection

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

The session was a continuation of practical practical exercises in

creative lettering. It tasked the learners to apply their knowledge and
skills in drawing, painting, design, colour, and idea development to create write
conventional letters in freehand and write some words to depict or suggest their
meaning.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.5
1. State TWO techniques that helped you to do the freehand lettering
correctly.

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DECORATIVE AND CREATIVE LETTERING UNIT 3
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: CONCENTRIC LETTERING

Dear learner, this session will introduce you to another style of
lettering called concentric lettering. The session will focus on basic
principles of concentric lettering and task you to apply the principles to
constructs sentences in semantic lettering. Please relax, it is going to be an
interesting session.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to;
a. explain concentric lettering
b. State principles of concentric lettering
c. apply principles of concentric lettering and optical spacing to construct
sentences in concentric lettering

Now read on…

Concentric Lettering
Concentric lettering is the art of constructing or drawing letters in a curved or
circular direction from left to right. In other words, it is the art of constructing
letters in concentric circles or arcs.

Rules of Concentric Lettering

 All the letters must stand erect in the circle.
 The middle of the width of every letter must radiate to the centre point
of the circle.
 The width of every letter must be parallel to its middle line.
 The top spaces of the letters must be opened a bit wider than the down
spaces to prevent them from slanting in the arc. This style of spacing is
referred to as ‘fan spacing.’
 The letters must be blocked-in first with thumbnail sketches to obtain
correct spacing before setting out. The lettering must start from left to
right.
 All the principles of letter and word spacing must be observed.

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SESSION 6
Figure 3.6.1 illustrates the principles of concentric lettering:

Figure 3.6.1: illustration of principles of concentric lettering

Practical Activity1
Using your knowledge and skills in optical spacing and San serif lettering, set
out the works Ministry of communication in concentric lettering and paint in
positive painting. Use uppercase San serif typeface.

Practical Activity2
Using your knowledge and skills in optical spacing and San serif lettering, set
out the works Ministry of communication in concentric lettering and paint in
reverse painting. Use uppercase San serif typeface.

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.
The session discussed the concept of concentric lettering and
principles governing it. It highlighted on the principle of fan spacing
as very important in good concentric lettering. The session also tasked learners
to construct some words in concentric lettering.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.6
1. State TWO principles of concentric lettering.

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY
UNIT 4

UNIT 4: WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY

Unit Outline
Session 1: Writing Words and Sentences in Sanserif with Optical Spacing
Principles
Session 2: Producing Text-only Posters
Session 3: Concept, Tools and Materials for Calligraphy
Session 4: Writing Calligraphic Strokes and Creating Border Designs
Session 5: Creating Decorative Grounds for Calligraphic Writing
Session 6: Producing Artifacts with Calligraphy

Dear learner, in this last unit, we are going to apply the knowledge
and skills you have acquired in lettering and optical spacing to write
words and sentences in classical San serif typeface and paint. You will also be
introduced to the concept of calligraphy and practice how to write calligraphy
and produce wall hangings with calligraphy.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to;
1. Use principles of optical spacing to write words and sentences in
classical San serif typeface and paint.
2. Apply principles of spacing and lettering to design and produce text-
only posters
3. Discuss concepts, tools and materials use in calligraphy
4. Practice how to write uppercase and lowercase calligraphic letters and
use calligraphic strokes to create border designs
5. Create decorative grounds for calligraphy writing
6. Design and produce artifacts with calligraphy

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UNIT 4

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: WRITING WORDS AND SENTENCES WITH OPTICAL

SPACING PRINCIPLES

Introduction
Dear learner, this session is a practical session. It aims at tasking you to apply
your knowledge and skills in optical spacing and lettering to construct words
and sentences and paint. Please relax, it will going to be an interesting session.

Objective
By the end of this session, you will be able to apply principles of lettering, word
and line spacing to write words and sentences and paint.

Practical Activity 1
Using the principles of letter spacing construct the word TAVOHILAWAYOO
in uppercase San serif and paint.

Practical Activity 2
Using the principles of letter spacing construct the word the following words in
uppercase Roman lettering and paint:
 Planning
 Wavelenght
 Communication

Practical Activity3
Using principles of optical spacing write the text:
THEQUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG

in classical uppercase Roman lettering and paint.

Note:
 The text must be well-balances
 The text must be given a 5mm thickness borderline and paint.
Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

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 UNIT 4
SESSION 1

The session was a practical session. It tasked the learners to apply

their knowledge and skills in optical spacing, San serif and Roman
lettering to write words and sentences.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.1
1. State TWO optical spacing rule of thumb for letter spacing

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY
UNIT 4
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: PRODUCING TEXT-ONLY POSTERS

Introduction
Dear learner, this session aims at helping you to deepen your skills in lettering
and spacing. The session will task you to apply your knowledge and skills in
optical spacing, lettering, basic design and colour psychology to produce
simple text-only poster. Please relax, it will going to be an interesting session.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to apply principles of lettering,
spacing, basic design and colour psychology to design a text-only poster.

Practical Activity 1
Using principles design, colour psychology, lettering and spacing, design and
produce a text-only poster with the following text: KEEP YOUR
ENVIRONMENT CLEAN.

Instructions:
 Use only uppercase San serif typeface
 The background of the poster should be painted with a tinted colour
 The size of the work should be A3
Practical Activity 2
Using principles design, colour psychology, spacing, decorative lettering and
San serif lettering, design and produce a text-only poster with the following text:
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES
P. O. BOX, 2934
CAPE COAST

Instructions:
 Do not use more than three colours including the background colour
 The size of the work should be A3
 Paint 5mm borderline around the text.

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 UNIT 4 PRODUCING TEXT-ONLY POSTERS
SESSION 2
Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

The session was a practical session. It tasked the learners to apply

their knowledge and skills in principles of design, colour
psychology, optical spacing, San serif and decorative lettering to produce text-
only posters.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.2
1. State the rule of thumb for line spacing

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: CONCEPT, TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR

CALLIGRAPHY
Dear learner, in this session, we will introduce you to another type
of lettering called calligraphy. However, emphasis will be placed on
the concept, history and tools and materials used in calligraphy.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. define calligraphy
b. state ancient and modern tools and materials used in calligraphy
c. describe how to prepare bamboo nibs

Now read on…

Concept of Calligraphy
The term calligraphy was derived from the Greek word “Kalligraphia”,
meaning beautiful writing. In other words, calligraphy can be defined as the art
of fine handwriting or script writing. It can also be defined as the art of beautiful
handwriting or penmanship.

Calligraphic letters are written rather than drawn. Unlike ordinary handwriting,
calligraphers consider form, stroke, space, legibility, rhythm and uniformity of
letters. Calligraphic letters can be written upright or italized. They are often
identified with their blackness and angularity and they have thin and think
strokes in their structure. Nowadays, there are many kinds of calligraphic letters
created by different calligraphers but, the most popular one is the English style
(Old English) which has all of it stems erect with the curved sides written in
perfect angle. When writing calligraphy, the nib of the writing tool is always
positioned at an angle of angle of 450

Historical Development
The art of calligraphy can be traced from the pre-historic era where different
kinds of abstractions in the form of hieroglyphics were found on the cave walls
at around 35,000-20,000 B.C. at Lascaux, in France. Calligraphy remained the
only style of writing in the ancient times and it was used to write all kinds of
picture writings invented by the Egyptians, Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and
Arabs. It also remained the only method that was used to write alphabets during

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SESSION 3 CALLIGRAPHY
the creation of the Phoenician alphabets in around 1000 B.C. through their
subsequent adaptation and improvement by the Greeks and the Romans (Getlein,
2002).

In ancient Egypt, calligraphy was restricted to the priesthood and was not made
common to be written by ordinary people. The Egyptians used it to write their
hieroglyphics (sacred inscription) on papyrus paper (an early form of paper
made from a rush-like plant growing along the Nile river.) they also incised the
writings on monuments and inside tombs.

Around the same period, the Sumerians also created another form of picture
writing called “Cuneiform” in which they used a stylus of hard wood or bones
to press wedged shapes (cuneiform) in clay tablets which were then baked in the
sun. The Babylonians and Semitics adopted cuneiform style ([Link] 2016).

The Phoenicians were the first to invent an alphabetic system with 22 characters
around 1000 B.C. This was written from right to left. The Greeks later adopted
the Phoenician alphabetic writing system about 850 B.C. Initially, the Greeks
wrote the first lines from right to left and the next line from left to right. This
method of writing is called “Boustrophedon”. Finally, they settled on left to
right as done in the western world.

The Greeks carved the letters into stones, casted in metal, painted on pottery and
written on papyrus paper. The Romans also adopted the Greeks alphabets during
the first century to the Latin language and manipulated them through brush and
broad pen writing (Calligraphy). This lead to the development of speedier script
called cursive which was called “uncials” (Rounded capital letters). The uncials
became book hand in Europe during the 4th and 5th centuries. They did the
writing on parchments (Material made from sheep and goat skin). They also used
‘Vellum’, A high quality parchment.

During the decline of the Roman Empire, the Christian church became the
custodian of western culture. Monasteries became the center of leaning where
libraries and coping chambers were established. The Christian monks copied
religious books and ancient text. Many produced “illuminating manuscript”.
Scribes gradually developed the first “minuscule” (Small letters) through
calligraphy.

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SESSION 3
After the installation of Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Empire in A.D. 8000,
he asked the English scholars and the ecclesiastic Alcuin of York to reform
handwriting and have it taught to all government officials and monastery
students. They developed a new script style, which was slightly italized. It was
popularly known as the “Carolingian style”.

By the 12th century A. D., calligraphy had become a very important craft, which
helped the development of trade in Europe. Many calligraphic shops were set up
by scribes and other people throughout Europe. Some Italian scribes developed
another italic style through calligraphy during the renaissance period in Italy and
in 1552 A.D. many writers published manuals on calligraphy. The most popular
among them is the “La Operina” punished by Ludovici degli Arrigi. Other
renowned European calligraphers also published different books on calligraphy
during the 15th century, which helped the spread of the craft throughout Europe
(Eskilson 2012).

The invention of moveable type in A.D. 1450 by Johannes Gutenberg threatened

the future of calligraphy since many people diverted their interest to commercial
printing which was comparatively faster. However, some experienced European
calligraphers such as Jan Van de Velde, Maria Strick, Esther Inglis, Edward
cocker, Charles Snell and John Clerk stuck to the craft and propagated it in
Europe but the commercialization of the craft declined drastically when
commercial printing and typography became the main process of publishing all
kinds of books and reading materials in the world.

In the ancient times, local materials such as quills of feathers obtained from large
birds like Goose and Turkeys were used to produce writing ribs. Other materials
such as scales of Porcupines, canes, read etc. and locally prepared inks were
used to write calligraphy on scrolls of papyrus paper, vellum and parchment.
During the 19th century, steel pens and ribs were invented for writing
calligraphy. Other 20th century educators and typographers such as William
Morris and Edward Johnson engaged themselves in an art and craft movement
in Europe to rediscover the use of calligraphy by educating art students and
writing books on calligraphy. This lead to the formation of society for scribes
and illuminators by some art students in London in 1922.

In the U.S.A. the calligraphic style of some renowned calligraphers were

practiced and propagated. Nowadays, different kinds of pens, nibs, makers and
inks are available for writing calligraphy. However, in spite of all the efforts

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 UNIT 4 CONCEPT, TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR
SESSION 3 CALLIGRAPHY
calligraphers have made to maintain the craft, the desire for it has been declining
worldwide due to globalization, which has led to the continuous invention of
computers and faster writing and printing methods.
Uses of Calligraphy
 Writing of wall hangings, certificates, invitation cards etc.
 Use to design posters, calendars, signage, banners and other graphic
communication works.
 Decorative calligraphic letters are used as drop caps when writing a
quotation on a wall hanging to create beauty and emphasis in the work.
 Calligraphic strokes are used to design borders of certificates and wall
hangings.
Making your own writing pens
There are many local materials in our environment, which beginners can use to
prepare their own cheap pens for practicing calligraphy. The common ones are
bamboos, canes, grass stem, reeds etc. Follow the processes below to prepare
your own writing pens:
 Select a seasoned (dried) bamboo of a reasonable length. The length of
a ball pen is preferable.
 Use a sharp knife to cut one end to slant
 Scoop-off the slanted side to obtain a flat end of half to one-inch length
 Make a slight vertical cut of about 2cm at exactly the middle of the
scooped side from the tip to a deep length almost to the shaft. This will
serve as a reservoir to hold more colour when writing.
 Cut off the writing tip slightly to an angle of 180° and level it to obtain
even strokes when writing. Figure 4.3.1 are the process that illustrate
how to prepare a bamboo nib.

Figure 4.3.1: Process of preparing bamboo nib.

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 3

The session discussed the concept ad historical development of

calligraphy. It emphasised that calligraphy is written rather than
drawn and the strokes are written in an angle of 45%. it also described how to
prepare bamboo nib for writing calligraphy.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.3
1. Define the term calligraphy
2. Sate two tools used to write calligraphy in the ancient time.
3. State two modern tools use to write calligraphy.

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 UNIT 4 CONCEPT, TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR
SESSION 3 CALLIGRAPHY

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: WRITING CALLIGRAPHIC STROKES AND

CREATING BORDER DESIGNS
Dear learner, I hope you have now grasped the basic principles of
calligraphy? Great! In this session, I am going to guide you to
practice how to write calligraphic strokes and borders. Emphasis will be placed
on writing lowercase, uppercase and borders.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to;
a. write different strokes in calligraphy. Example vertical, horizontal,
inclined strokes and arc.
b. Write lowercase calligraphic letters
c. write uppercase calligraphic letters
d. combine different calligraphic strokes to create calligraphic borderlines.

Now lets start the practical activities…

Practical Activity 1: Writing Calligraphic Strokes

You will need the following for the exercise:
 Calligraphy nib or chiselled-edge sable brush
 Writing Ink
 Ruler
 A2 size Manila card
 Pallete
 Water
 Rag
 Etc.

Practicing Calligraphy
 Secure a sheet of plain paper on a flat surface.
 Rule two parallel horizontal lines 2cm to 3cm apart.
 Mix your poster colour to a sharp consistency, or use rot ring ink.
 Dip the nib into the colour and place it on the top guideline at an angle
of 450 then practice writing vertical, horizontal, inclined and curved
strokes. After mastering the strokes, practice writing any calligraphic
letters in lower and uppercase. Figure 4. 4.1 are type of the strokes:

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 UNIT 4 WRITING CALLIGRAPHIC STROKES
SESSION 4 AND CREATING BORDER DESIGNS

Calligraphic strokes

Figure 4.4.1: Types of calligraphic strokes

Practical Activity 2: Writing of Lowercase Calligraphic Strokes

Using your skills of writing different types of calligraphic strokes, practice
writing lowercase calligraphic alphabet. Figure 4.4.2 is the example of my style
of writing calligraphic letters, please, you can imitate the style while you write
or create your own style of handwriting.

Figure 4.4.3 is sample of lowercase calligraphy letters:

Figure 4.4.3: Lowercase Calligraphic Letters

Practical Activity 3: Writing of Uppercase Calligraphic Strokes

Using your skills of writing different types of calligraphic strokes, practice
writing uppercase calligraphic alphabet. Figure 4.4.2 is the example of my style

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 4
of writing calligraphic letters, please, you can imitate the style while you write
or create your own style of handwriting.

Figure 4.4.3 is sample of uppercase calligraphy letters:

lo

Figure 4.4.3: Example of uppercase calligraphic lettering

Note: browse the internet to find different types of calligraphic writings and
practice how to write them.

Designing Borders with Calligraphy

Various styles of calligraphic strokes can be used to design or decorate the
borders of different kinds of articles such as certificates, wall hangings etc.
When designing borders with calligraphic strokes, first use faint pencil marks to
draw the frame of the planned border and then use it as a guide to write the
desired strokes to create the border design. It must be emphasized that, the
calligrapher must maintain uniformity of strokes, space and shapes when
designing borders. Figure 4.4.4 are examples of calligraphic borders:

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 UNIT 4 WRITING CALLIGRAPHIC STROKES
SESSION 4 AND CREATING BORDER DESIGNS

Calligraphic boarder designs

Figure 4.4.4: Examples of calligraphic border designs

Practical Activity 4: Creating of Calligraphic Borders

Combine the calligraphic strokes to create at least 10 different calligraphic
border designs

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

In this session, learners were tasked to apply their knowledge in

calligraphy to practice how to write different types of calligraphic
strokes, letters and borders.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.4
1. State the principle of writing calligraphic strokes.

2. Sate two principles to apply when writing calligraphy

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: CREATING DECORATIVE GROUNDS FOR

CALLIGRAPHIC WRITING
Introduction
Dear learner, in this unit, I will introduce you to basic methods of decorating
grounds for calligraphic works. The session will be full of practical activities
so committed to it.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to;
State different methods of preparing grounds for calligraphy works
Decorate grounds for calligraphy works

Now read on…

Methods of Decorating Grounds

In other to enhance the beauty of wall hangings, the ground of the substrate is
often decorated. Different methods such as blending, spattering, rolling and
stippling effects etc. are used. Now, let’s discuss some of them.

Spattering
This is the art of spraying colour unto the ground with a tool called spray
diffuser. The diffuser is a setup consisting of a small glass or plastic container
into which a thin straw-like plastic or metal pipe has been inserted through a
tight hole in the middle of the lid of the container. The container is filled with
colour mixed into light consistency to half or three-quarter full and covered
tightly with the lid. It must be noted that the tube must be inserted to suspend in
the colour. A bigger pipe similar to the size of the holder of a ball pen is hooked
or held firmly to the top end of the tube at 450 and the mouth is used to blow air
from the other end of the pipe in a high pressure to syphon the colour upwards
from the container through a gravitational force built up in the container. The
colour atomizes (explodes) at the tip of the tube to diffuse or spatter the colour
in fine droplets unto the surface.

Different colours can be sprayed depending on the colour scheme selected for
the work. Other materials such as leafs, templates etc. Can be arranged on the
ground and the colour is sprayed around them.

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 UNIT 4 CREATING DECORATIVE GROUNDS FOR
SESSION 5 CALLIGRAPHIC WRITING
Blending
This is the art of creating layers of different tones or colours on a ground. This
is done by applying the colours with brush. The ends of each layer of colour are
worked into each other(blended) to create a gradation of the colours or tones.

Rolling effects
These are done with paper, rag, sponge etc. A piece of the rolling material is
twisted and charged with colour and rolled on the ground.

Stippling
This can be done with natural or synthetic sponge. A piece of the sponge is
folded and twisted and then cut at the cross-section. The cross-sectional edge is
dipped into colour and stamped gradually on the ground. Note that you can also
experiment to develop your own methods.

Practical Activity
Using analogous colour scheme, prepare a ground for a wall hanging.
You will require the following for the exercise:
 Poster colour or acrylic
 Spray diffuser
 Leafs
 Can
 Water
 A3 white manila card
 Rag

Procedure
 Fix the paper on a flat table with pins
 Mix the colours in small containers and thin to a very light consistency
 Pour the lightest colour 3/4 full into the spray diffuser
 Arrange interesting leafs on the card and put stones on the leafs to weight
them
 Stand close to the table and blow the colour unto the ground.
 When satisfied with the first colour, pour the colour from the spray
diffuser, rinse it well and fill it with another colour and spray.
 Remove the leafs and dry the ground.

Note: The force that is used to blow the air will determine the finest or roughness
of the spattering effect.

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY UNIT 4
SESSION 5

The session discussed some methods of creating decorative

backgrounds for wall hangings. Methods such as spattering,
stippling and rolling were discussed. The session also tasked learners to decorate
a ground.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.5
1. State one safety measure to observe when decorating grounds with
spray diffuser and leafs

2. Describe how to obtain fine spatter effect with spray diffuser.

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 UNIT 4 CREATING DECORATIVE GROUNDS FOR
SESSION 5 CALLIGRAPHIC WRITING

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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WORD FORMATION AND CALLIGRAPHY
UNIT 4
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: PRODUCING ARTIFACTS WITH

CALLIGRAPHY
Introduction
Dear learner, this last session of the module aims at giving the opportunity to
apply your skills in design, spacing, calligraphy and ground decoration to design
and produce beautiful wall hanging in calligraphy. Please relax, it is going to be
an interesting experience.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to;
1. decorate a ground for a wall hanging
2. plan and produce a wall hanging with decorative lettering and calligraphy
3. finish and present the wall hanging effectively for display

Now let’s do the project.

Practical Activity 1
Using the following text, plan and produce an interesting wall hanging in
calligraphy:
“Be thou faithful unto the lord and I will give you a crown of life”.

Instructions
 Size- A3
 Background must be decorated
 The design must be decorated with calligraphic border design
 The top and down ends of the wall hanging must be fixed with a cane.
 The finished work must be fixed with a handle for easy hanging.
 The finished work must be preserved by spraying over with lacquer or
vanish
 The colours should not be more than TWO excluding the background
colour

Please, you can also seek guidance from any Senior High School or tertiary
Graphic Design student or teacher/lecturer in your locality. Send your finished
work to your next tutorial class for your course tutor and course mates to jury
the work.

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 UNIT 4
SESSION 6
Practical Activity 2
Using the following text, plan and produce an interesting wall hanging in
calligraphy:
“As for all those torments that are said to take place in the depth of our hell,
they are present with us here and now in our own lives”.
By Dr. Kwame Agyarkoh

Note: Apply the same instructions in practical activity 1

Practical Activity 3
Using the following text, plan and produce an interesting wall hanging in
decorative lettering and calligraphy:
“If you are not handsome at 20, strong at 30 and rich at 40, then forget it”.
By Dr. Kwame Agyarkoh

Note: Apply the same instructions in practical activity 1

The session tasked learners to apply their knowledge and skills in

design, colour theory, spacing, lettering and calligraphy to design
and produce beautiful wall hangings with different text.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.6
1. State TWO materials that can be used to preserve a wall hanging
2. State the types of optical spacing rule of thumbs you applied in all the
designs

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 REFERENCES

Amenuke, S. K., Dogbe, B. K., Asare, F. D. K., Ayiku R. K., & Baffoe A.
(1999). General knowledge in art for senior secondary schools (pp.
116-124). Ministry of education.

Breckhuizen R. J. (1992). Graphic Communications (4th ed., p. 127). New

York. Glencoe, McGraw-Hill Company.

Dennis, E. A., & Jenkins, J. K. (1991). Comprehensive Graphic Art. New

York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill

Eskilson, S. J. (2012). Graphic design a history. (2nd Ed.) UK: Laurence

Getlein, M. (2002). Gilbert’s living with art: (6th ed.), New York: McGraw-
Hill Companies Inc.

Landa, R. (2010). Graphic design solutions. Cengage Learning.

Meggs, P. B. (1992). Type and image: The language of graphic design. John
Wiley & Sons

Stewards, B. (1985). Signwork- a craftsman’s manual. London: Collins

Professional and Technical Books, William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.

[Link] J. C. (2016). Type a visual history of typefaces and graphic Styles.

China: Taschen GmbH 2010.

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 GLOSSARY

Blending: the art of gradating tones into each other

Consistency: the thickness of a paint. A paint is either sharp, medium or
viscous consistency
Pictogram: prehistoric paintings done in caves. They indicate the etymology
of visual communication in the woks
Ideogram: picture symbols that were developed after pictograms to describe
the process of an event.
Fan spacing: A technique of spacing letters in concentric circles to make the
letters erect in the arc.
Filling in: the art of applying colour into drawn or constructed letters to
achieve sharp edges
Font of typeface: The assortment of a particular typeface which are combined
for meaningful sentences. Examples are uppercase, lowercase,
numerals, punctuation marks etc.
Family of typeface: Varying sizes in which a typeface is produced. The sizes
range from 6points to 72 points.
Freestyle lettering: The art of using natural of artificial objects in the
environment to create letters. Regular and irregular shapes can also be
used to create freestyle letters. Freestyle lettering is a type of novelty
typeface.
Ground: the prepared surface of a support on which an artwork is executed
Hieroglyphics: A kind of picture writing created by ancient Egyptians. It was
the first writing system to be created in the world.
Italicise: Letters that slant towards left or right at an angle of about 200.
Kerning: The technique of overlapping letters such as W and A, T and A and
others in optical spacing.
Mechanical spacing: An amateur method of spacing letters with equal
physical measurements
Optical spacing: The technique of using your eyes to space letters, words and
sentences by considering the shape of the letters meeting each other.
Optical spacing leaves different spaces between letters.
Nib: Another name for a calligraphic writing tools. It actually refers to the
edge used to write.
Phonogram: The of picture writing in which the each symbol represent a
sound. Example is hieroglyphics, alphabets, etc.
Rule of thumb: standard laws or principles that guide a particular practice.
Examples, the rules of spacing letters, words and sentences with eyes.
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Semantic lettering: This is the type of creative lettering in which words are
created to depict or suggest their meaning. Writing the word speed to
suggest motion etc.
Spattering: The art of using high pressure of air to blow colour unto a ground
to create fine droplets of colour on the ground. This usually done with a
spray diffuser.
Style of typeface: The appearance of a particular type of typeface such as
decorative, bold, extra bold etc.
Typeface: a set of letters or characters with the same or similar features that
can be combined to form meaningful words and sentences.

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UNIT 1
Exercise 1.1
1. The three stages of development of Visual Communication predating the
alphabetic era are:
 Pictogram stage
 Ideogram stage
 Phonogram stage
2. The three main stages of the alphabetic era of development of Visual
Communication are:
 Development of Phoenician alphabets
 Development of Greek alphabets
 Development of Roman alphabets

Exercise 1.2
1. Typeface refers to a set of letters that have the same or similar features
which can be combined to communicate effectively. Example is Roman
typeface.
2. State TWO characteristics of each of the following class of typefaces:
a) Roman: They have serifs, thick and thin strokes
b) San serif: they do not have serifs and they have uniform thickness in
their structure
c) Square serif : they have short square non-bracketed serifs

Exercise 1.3
1. Characteristics of each of the following class of typeface:
a) Text: They are decorative
b) Script/cursive: they have links are italicised
c) Novelty: They are innovative letters and have no standard features
2. One use of each class of typeface are:
a) Text: They are used to set drop cap of a quotation
b) Script/cursive: They are used for festive cards
c) Novelty: They are used for captions

Exercise 1.4
1. Some parts of letters are:
 Lobe
 Counter
 Shoulder
 Ascender

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 Descender
 Serif
 Etc.
2. Definition of the following terms used in typography:
a) Style of a typeface: This refers to the appearance of a particular type of
typeface. Example, decorative, italicise, bold, extra-bold, etc.
b) Font: This refers to the different assortments in which a particular
typeface is produced. Example, uppercase, lowercase, numerals and
punctuation marks
c) Family of typeface: This refers to the varying sizes in which fonts are
created. The sizes of fonts range from 6pts to 72pts.

Exercise 1.5
1. One specific use of each of the following lettering tools are:
a) Metric rule: use to measure strokes and sizes of letters. It is also used to
draw straight sides of letters.
b) A pair of compass: It is used to draw the curved parts of letters
c) A pair of divider: it is used to transfer measurements from ruler unto
the surface when constructing letters
d) Protractor; It is used to measure angles in lettering. Especially when
constructing italicised letters.
a) French curve: it is used to draw regular and irregular curves in lettering.

Exercise 1.6
1. The appropriate sizes of each of the following types are:
a) Display type: 14pts and above
b) Body type: 10pts to 12pts
2. The conventional width sizes of each of the following uppercase San serif
typeface:
a) I: 1/8
b) W: 8/8 or 9/8
c) D: 7/8
d) E: 4/8

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UNIT 2
Exercise 2.1
1. One factor to consider when constructing each of the following upper case
block letters are:
a) B: the top counter should be slightly smaller than the down counter.
b) I: Small measurement such as 2-3mm must be added to the normal
thickness of the letter:
c) W: All the three counters must have the same size
d) S: The top counter must be smaller than the down counter
Exercise 2.2
1. One factor to consider when constructing each of the following classical
upper case San serif letters are:
a) R: the tail must extend slightly beyond the width of the letter
b) H: The cross bar must be positioned at the optical centre of the letter.
Exercise 2.3
1. One factor to consider when constructing each of the following classical
upper case Roman letters are:
(i) A- The cross-bar must be placed in the middle of the counter
(ii) O- The outside curve must be constructed with a compass and the
inside curves must be drawn freehand.
Exercise 2.4
1. Spacing is the art or process of leaving gaps or intervals between letters,
words and sentenses.
2. The TWO main types of spacing are mechanical spacing and optical
spacing
3. The three types of optical spacing methods are lettering spacing, word
spacing and line spacing
Exercise 2.5
1. Decorative lettering is the type of lettering in which elements such as lines,
dots, shapes, colour, texture etc. have been added to a typeface to embellish
or beautify its features of appearance.
2. Four types of decorative lettering used in Visual Communication are:
a) Outline
b) In-line
c) Shaded letters
d) Reverse

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Exercise 2.6
1. Two principles to observe when casting shadows to letters are:
a) The shadow must be cast to the opposite side to the direction of the
source of light
b) The shadow must be painted darker than the actual letter.

UNIT 3
Exercise 3.1
1. One factor to consider when creating new decorative letters is that, the
elements that are used to embellish the typeface must be maintained in all
the letters.

Exercise 3.2
1. Freestyle lettering is the art or process of using natural or artificial objects
in the environment to create or write letters. Regular and irregular shapes
can also be used to create freestyle letters.
2. Semantic lettering is the art or process of writing a word to suggest or
depict its meaning. For instance, confusion, rhythm, broken, crack, etc.

Exercise 3.3
1. Four skills competencies and skills used in creating freestyle lettering are:
 Drawing
 Painting
 Composition
 Imagination

Exercise 3.4
1. Four challenges to faced when creating freestyle letters are:
 Difficulty in drawing the object to achieve resemblance
 Difficulty in maintaining the features of the object in all the letters
 Difficulty to create the letters to achieve legibility
 Difficulty in manipulating the object graphically to create every letter
correctly.

Exercise 3.5
1. Two techniques that help you to do the freehand lettering correctly are:
 Ability to paint letters create sharp edges
 Ability to write letters to correct shapes and size

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Exercise 3.6
1. Two principles of concentric lettering are:
 All the letters must stand erect in the circle.
 The top spaces of the letters must be opened a bit wider than the down
spaces to prevent them from slanting in the arc. This style of spacing is
referred to as ‘fan spacing.’

UNIT 4
Exercise 4.1
1. Two optical spacing rule of thumb for letter spacing are:
 When two circular letters meet, the gap must be very close or the letters
must butt. Example, OO
 When an pen sided letter meet with an inclined letter the space must
kern or overlap. Example, TA

Exercise 4.2
1. The rule of thumb for line spacing states that, the space between lines of
text must not be more than the height of the letters and not less than half of
the height of the letters.

Exercise 4.3
1. Calligraphy is defined as the art of beautiful handwriting or penmanship
2. Tools used to write calligraphy in the ancient time include:
 Feathers from wild birds such as eagle, goose, etc.
 Reed
 Cain
 Bamboo
 Etc.
3. Two modern tools use to write calligraphy are
 Metal nibs
 Brush
 Etc.

Exercise 4.4
1. The principle of writing calligraphic strokes states that when writing every
stroke, the nib must be positioned at an angle of 450.
2. Two principles to apply when writing calligraphy are:
 Maintain consistency in the strokes of all the letters
 Maintain consistency in the style of the letters

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Exercise 4.5
1. One safety measure to observe when decorating grounds with spray
diffuser and leafs is that:
 Secure the leaf well on the ground before blowing the colour
2. To obtain fine spatter effect with spray diffuser involves the following
factors
 Mix the colour to a light or sharp consistency
 Use high pressure to blow the colour to achieve fine atomization
 Blow the colour from appropriate distance to the ground

Exercise 4.6
1. Materials that can be used to preserve a wall hanging are:
 Lacquer
 Vanish
 polish
2. Optical spacing rule of thumbs applied when using calligraphy to design a
wall hanging are:
 Letter spacing rule of thumb
 Word and line spacing rule of thumb

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