Physics Project: Transformers

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Table of Contents

Contents
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 3
2. AIM...................................................................................................................................................... 4
3. Theoretical...................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Types.................................................................................................................................................. 9
6. Simple............................................................................................................................................. 13
7. Sources........................................................................................................................................... 15
8. Applications................................................................................................................................. 15
9. Relation Between Output and Input Voltage in a Transformer............................17
10. Relation Between the Number of Turns in the Secondary and Primary
Coils: 18
11. Conclusion................................................................................................................................20
12. Keywords and Definitions:...............................................................................................21
13. Bibliography............................................................................................................................24

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1. Introduction:
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 Figure 1: an ideal single-phase transformer showing the primary and secondary
winding around iron core.

A transformer is a static electrical device used to transfer

energy between two circuits by means of a changing
magnetic field. It consists of two (or more) coils of wire,
called the primary and secondary windings, wrapped
around a common magnetic core. When an alternating
current (AC) flows through the primary winding, it creates an
alternating magnetic flux in the core, which then induces a
voltage in the secondary winding by mutual induction .
Thus, a transformer can step up or step down voltages: if the
secondary has more turns than the primary, the output
voltage is higher than the input (a step-up transformer),
and vice versa for a step-down transformer. Transformers
are crucial in power systems because they enable efficient
transmission of AC power over long distances. By raising the
voltage (and lowering current) for transmission, line losses

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(I²R) are minimized, and then the voltage is lowered again
for safe use in homes and industries. In our experiment, we
build a simple transformer and measure the relationship
between the voltage ratio (secondary voltage ÷ primary
voltage) and the turns ratio (number of secondary turns ÷
number of primary turns

2. AIM:
To investigate the relationship between:

1. The output and input voltage of a transformer, and

2. The number of turns in the secondary coil and primary

coil of a self-designed transformer.

This study is based on the principle of mutual induction and

aims to verify the transformer equation:

Vs Ip
=
Vp Is
= Np
Ns

3. Theoretical Background
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When an alternating electromotive force (e.m.f.) is applied to
the primary coil P1, P2 of a transformer, an alternating
current begins to flow through it. This alternating current
produces a time-varying magnetic flux in the transformer's
core. Due to electromagnetic induction, this changing
magnetic flux induces an alternating e.m.f. in both the
primary and the secondary coils. In an ideal or well-designed
transformer, the entire magnetic flux produced in the
primary coil is also linked with the secondary coil. As a
result, the e.m.f. induced per turn in the secondary coil is
equal to that induced per turn in the primary coil. Let Ep and
Es be the instantaneous e.m.f.s and Np and Ns be the
number of turns in the primary and secondary coils
respectively. Then, the ratio of e.m.f.s is:

Ns
Np
= Es
Ep

The transformer is an essential electrical device operating on

the principle of electromagnetic induction. It functions to
convert alternating current (AC) from one voltage level to
another through mutual induction between two or more
windings. The theoretical foundation of the transformer lies
in Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction , which
describe how a time-varying magnetic field induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in a coil.

[Link] Induction

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Michael Faraday's investigations led to two fundamental
laws:

- Faraday's First Law states that whenever the magnetic

flux linked with a coil changes, an electromotive force (EMF)
is induced in the coil.

- Faraday's Second Law states that the magnitude of the

induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage.

Mathematically, this is represented as:

dΦ
EMF = dt

Where:

- Φ is the magnetic flux (Φ = B·A·cosθ)

- B is the magnetic field,

- A is the area of the coil,

- θ is the angle between the field and area vector,

- The negative sign represents Lenz's Law, indicating that

the induced EMF opposes the change in magnetic flux.

2. Working Principle of a Transformer

A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction .
When an alternating current flows through the primary coil,
it produces a changing magnetic flux in the core. This
changing flux is linked with the secondary coil and induces
an EMF, as per Faraday's laws.
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The device comprises two windings— primary (connected
to the source) and secondary (connected to the load)—
wound around a common magnetic core, usually made of
laminated soft iron to minimize energy loss.

3. Derivation of the Transformer

Equation

Let:

- Np = Number of turns in the primary coil

- Ns = Number of turns in the secondary coil

- Vp = Voltage across the primary coil

- Vs = Voltage across the secondary coil

- Φ = Magnetic flux linking both coils

- f = Frequency of the alternating current

Assuming ideal coupling (i.e., complete magnetic flux

linkage), the magnetic flux Φ is common to both coils and
varies sinusoidally:

Φ(t) = Φm sin(2πft)

EMF Induced in the Primary Coil

Using Faraday's law, the root-mean-square (RMS) value of

EMF induced in the primary coil is given by:

Vp = 4.44 × f × Np × Φm

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 EMF Induced in the Secondary Coil

Similarly, the RMS EMF in the secondary coil is:

Vs = 4.44 × f × Ns × Φm

Voltage Ratio Relation

Taking the ratio of secondary to primary voltages:

Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

This is the fundamental transformer equation , which

indicates that the voltage transformation in a transformer is
directly proportional to the ratio of the number of turns in
the secondary and primary coils.

4. Power in an Ideal Transformer

In the case of an ideal transformer (i.e., with no losses), the
power input is equal to the power output:

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

From this, we derive the current relationship:

Ip
Is
= Np
Ns

This shows that an increase in voltage results in a decrease

in current and vice versa, maintaining energy conservation.

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 5. Efficiency of a Transformer

The efficiency η of a transformer is given by:

Output Power Vs × Is
η= × 100 =
Input Power Vp× Ip

In practice, transformer efficiency ranges from 95% to 99%,

depending on construction and operating conditions.

6. Energy Losses in Transformers

Despite high efficiency, practical transformers do experience

losses, which are:

 Copper Losses : Due to resistance in windings, given by

I²R.
 Iron Losses : Including:
 Hysteresis Loss : Due to repeated magnetization and
demagnetization of the core.
 Eddy Current Loss : Induced currents in the core produce
heat; minimized using laminated cores.
 Flux Leakage : Not all magnetic flux links with the
secondary coil.
 Dielectric Losses : Occur in the insulating materials at
high voltages.

[Link]

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 Vs Ns
The transformer equation =
Vp Np lies at the heart of this
investigatory project. It illustrates the direct relationship
between voltage ratio and turns ratio in a transformer,
forming the theoretical basis for the experimental validation
of the designed model.

4. Types Of Transformers:
Transformers are classified based on different criteria such
as function, construction, number of phases, and usage. The
primary purpose of a transformer is to either increase (step-
up) or decrease (step-down) the voltage level while
maintaining the same frequency.

1. Based on Function:

a. Step-Up Transformer

A step-up transformer increases the voltage from the

primary to the secondary coil. This is achieved by having
more turns in the secondary coil (Ns > Np). These
transformers are commonly used in power transmission
where low-voltage electricity is converted to high voltage for
long-distance transmission to reduce power loss.

Where, Vs > Vp

b. Step-Down Transformer

A step-down transformer decreases the voltage from the

primary to the secondary coil. This is done by winding fewer
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turns in the secondary coil (Ns < Np). They are used in
household applications, power adapters, and chargers to
convert high-voltage supply to a usable lower voltage.

where Vs < Vp

2. Based on Construction
a. Core-Type Transformer

In core-type transformers, the windings are placed around

two limbs of a laminated iron core. The coils are wound in
such a way that both primary and secondary share both
limbs equally. This type is commonly used in power
distribution.

b. Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers, the windings are placed around the central limb of the
core, and the magnetic flux divides into two paths in the side limbs. It offers better
protection from leakage flux and is often used for high-efficiency operations.

3. Based on Number of Phases

a. Single-Phase Transformer

These transformers have one primary and one secondary

coil. They are typically used in low-power applications like
appliances, instruments, and household power supply.

b. Three-Phase Transformer

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Used in power systems and industrial setups, three-phase
transformers either consist of three single-phase units or one
three-phase unit with interconnected windings. They are
suitable for heavy load applications.

4. Based on Usage
a. Power Transformer

Used in transmission networks, power transformers handle

high voltages and are optimized for maximum efficiency at
full load.

b. Distribution Transformer

Installed at the end of the transmission lines, these

transformers provide final voltage transformation for
residential or commercial use. They are designed to work
efficiently at partial loads.

c. Instrument Transformer

Used for measuring voltage and current in high-voltage

systems:

 Current Transformer (CT): Steps down high current to a

lower, measurable value.
 Potential Transformer (PT): Steps down high voltage to
a measurable value.

d. Isolation Transformer

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This transformer has a 1:1 turns ratio, meaning it neither
steps up nor steps down the voltage. Its purpose is to isolate
the equipment from the main power source for safety and
noise reduction.

Apparatus Required:

 Iron rod (soft iron core)

 Enamelled copper wire (thin and thick)
 Hot wire ammeter (for measuring alternating current)
 Hot wire voltmeter (for measuring alternating voltage)

---

5. Experimental Procedure:

1. Take a thick iron rod and wrap it with a sheet of thick

paper for insulation.

2. Wind a large number of turns (approximately 60 turns) of

thin copper wire uniformly around the paper-covered rod to
form the primary coil .

3. Cover the primary winding with another layer of

insulating paper.

4. Over this, wind a relatively smaller number of turns

(about 20 turns) of thicker copper wire to create the
secondary coil . This setup acts as a step-down
transformer .

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5. Connect the primary terminals P1 and P2 to an A.C. mains
supply.

6. Measure the input voltage and current using an A.C.

voltmeter and ammeter respectively.

7. Measure the output voltage and current from the

secondary terminals S1 and S2.

8. Now, reverse the connections: connect S1 and S2 to the

A.C. mains to operate the transformer in step-up mode .

9. Again, record the input and output voltages and currents

using appropriate meters.

10. Repeat the experiment using other self-constructed

transformers, varying the number of turns in the primary and
secondary coils to observe and compare the results.

6. Simple Circuit Diagrams:

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 a. Step-Up Transformer
In a step-up transformer, the secondary coil has more turns
than the primary coil. This results in the secondary voltage
being higher than the primary voltage. Based on the
principle of energy conservation , it converts low voltage,
high current input into high voltage, low current output.
Step-up transformers are commonly used near power
plants to transmit electricity over long distances efficiently.
They are also used in smaller applications like X-ray
machines , which require around 50,000 volts , and even
in microwave ovens , which rely on small step-up
transformers to function.

b. Step-Down Transformer

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A step-down transformer has fewer turns in the secondary
coil than in the primary, resulting in a lower secondary
voltage . It converts high-voltage, low-current electricity
into low-voltage, high-current electricity, making it ideal
for domestic use .

A common example is a doorbell , which typically requires

only 16 volts , while household circuits supply 110–120
volts . A step-down transformer reduces the voltage to a
safe level for the doorbell to function. These transformers
are also widely used to convert 220V supply to 110V for
use in various home appliances.

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7. Sources of Error:
1. Inaccurate Number of Turns
The number of turns wound on the primary and secondary
coils may not be precise, leading to an incorrect turns ratio
and deviation from expected voltage values.

2. Flux Leakage
In a self-made transformer, some magnetic flux produced
by the primary coil may not fully link with the secondary coil,
reducing the induced EMF.

3. Internal Resistance of the Wire

The copper wire used for winding has resistance, which
causes internal voltage drops and minor power losses.

4. Instrumental Errors
Voltmeters and ammeters may have calibration issues or
limited precision, leading to slight inaccuracies in recorded
measurements.

8. Applications Of
Transformers:

1. Power Transmission and Distribution

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Transformers are essential in electrical power systems. Step-
up transformers increase voltage at power stations for long-
distance transmission, minimizing power loss. At the
receiving end, step-down transformers reduce voltage to
safer levels for domestic and industrial use.

2. Domestic Appliances
Many household appliances such as mobile chargers,
televisions, refrigerators, and microwave ovens use small
transformers to convert high mains voltage (e.g., 220V or
110V) into lower voltages suitable for safe operation.

3. Industrial Applications
In industries, transformers are used in welding machines,
electric furnaces, and machine tools, where different voltage
levels are required for different operations.

4. Electronic Devices
Transformers are widely used in power supplies, amplifiers,
radios, and telecommunication circuits to isolate circuits and
adjust voltage levels as needed for various components.

5. Isolation and Safety

Isolation transformers are used in laboratories, hospitals,

and sensitive electronic equipment to provide electrical
isolation for safety and to reduce electrical noise.

6. Instrumentation

Instrument transformers such as current transformers (CTs)

and potential transformers (PTs) are used for measuring high
voltage and current in power systems by stepping them
down to measurable levels.

7. Renewable Energy Systems

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Transformers are used in solar power plants and wind
turbines to convert the generated voltage to grid-compatible
levels, supporting efficient integration into power grids

9. Relation Between Output

and Input Voltage in a
Transformer:
One of the fundamental principles governing the operation of
a transformer is the relationship between the output voltage
Vs and the input voltage Vp. This relationship is derived from
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, which states
that a changing magnetic flux in the core of a transformer
induces an electromotive force (EMF) in both the primary
and secondary coils.

In an ideal transformer, the ratio of the voltage across the

secondary coil to that across the primary coil is directly
proportional to the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary and primary coils. This relationship is
mathematically expressed as:

Where:

- Np = Number of turns in the primary coil

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- Ns = Number of turns in the secondary coil

- Vp = Voltage across the primary coil

- Vs = Voltage across the secondary coil

This equation indicates that if the secondary coil has more

turns than the primary coil (Ns > Np), then the output
voltage Vs will be greater than the input voltage Vp, and the
transformer will function as a step-up transformer.
Conversely, if the secondary coil has fewer turns than the
primary coil (Ns < Np), then the output voltage will be less
than the input voltage, resulting in a step-down transformer.

Example:

Let us consider a self-designed transformer where:

- Input voltage, Vp = 240V

- Number of turns in the primary coil, Np = 60

- Number of turns in the secondary coil, Ns = 20

Then,

Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
→ 20
60
= Vs
240
→ Vs = 80V

This means the transformer steps down the input voltage

from 240 V to 80V.

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In conclusion, the voltage transformation in a transformer is
directly governed by the turns ratio. By varying the number
of turns in the secondary coil with respect to the primary
coil, the output voltage can be controlled, thus validating the
theoretical relation.

10. Relation Between the

Number of Turns in the
Secondary and Primary
Coils:
In a transformer, the number of turns in the primary coil Np
and secondary coil Ns determines the degree to which
voltage is either increased or decreased between the input
and output. This relationship is rooted in Faraday's Law,
which states that the EMF induced in a coil is proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux and the number of turns
in the coil.

Assuming an ideal transformer (i.e., no energy losses and

perfect magnetic coupling), the ratio of the secondary to

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primary turns governs the voltage transformation according
to the formula:
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

This indicates a direct proportionality between the number of

turns in the coils and the voltage across them.

 Interpretation:
- If Ns > Np: The transformer increases voltage (step-up
transformer).

- If Ns < Np: The transformer decreases voltage (step-down

transformer).

- If Ns = Np: The output voltage equals the input voltage

(isolation transformer).

Example:

Let us take a self-designed transformer where:

- Np = 60 turns

- Ns = 20 turns

- Input voltage Vp = 240V

Using the relation:

Vs Ns 20 Vs
=
Vp Np
→
60
= 240
→ Vs = 80V

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This clearly shows that with fewer turns in the secondary
coil, the voltage drops, and the transformer behaves as a
step-down transformer.

In conclusion, the voltage transformation in a transformer

depends directly on the turns ratio. By increasing or
decreasing the number of turns in the secondary coil relative
to the primary, one can precisely control the output voltage.
This experimental relation effectively supports the
transformer equation:

Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

11. Conclusion:
Through this investigatory project, the basic theory and
working of a transformer were explored in detail, with special
focus on the relationship between voltage and coil turns. The
project confirmed that a transformer functions on the
principle of mutual induction , where a changing magnetic
flux in the primary coil induces an EMF in the secondary coil.

Specifically, it was observed that:

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- (i) The output-to-input voltage ratio is directly
proportional to the number of turns in the secondary and
primary coils.

- (ii) The turns ratio governs whether the transformer

acts as a step-up or step-down device.

The mathematical relation Vs / Vp = Ns / Np was verified

experimentally using a self-constructed transformer. The
results clearly showed that altering the number of turns in
either coil changes the output voltage accordingly. This
validates both the theoretical concepts and practical
applications of transformers in electrical systems.

12. Keywords and

Definitions:
1. Primary winding / Primary coil (P1, P2)

The coil connected to the input AC supply; it creates a

magnetic field when current flows through it.

2. Secondary winding / Secondary coil (S1, S2)

The coil in which voltage is induced due to the magnetic

flux created by the primary coil.

3. Core / Iron core / Magnetic core

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 The central part of the transformer made of laminated
iron, which guides and concentrates magnetic flux between
coils.

4. AC (Alternating Current)

An electric current that reverses direction periodically,

commonly used in homes and transformers.

5. EMF (Electromotive Force)

The voltage generated by a changing magnetic field, as

per Faraday's Law.

6. Magnetic flux (Φ)

A measure of the total magnetic field passing through a

coil or area, responsible for inducing EMF.

7. Flux leakage

The portion of magnetic flux that does not link both

primary and secondary coils, causing inefficiency.

8. Mutual induction

The process where a changing current in one coil induces

a voltage in another nearby coil.

9. Electromagnetic induction

The phenomenon of generating EMF in a conductor due to

a changing magnetic field.

10. Turns ratio (Ns/Np)

The ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to

the number of turns in the primary coil.

11. Voltage ratio (Vs/Vp)

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 The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage, which
equals the turns ratio in an ideal transformer.

12. Efficiency (η)

The percentage of input power that is successfully

converted into output power in a transformer.

13. Losses

The energy lost in the transformer due to heat, magnetic

inefficiencies, or resistance.

14. Hysteresis loss

Energy lost in the core due to repeated magnetization and

demagnetization.

15. Eddy current loss

Heat loss in the core due to circular currents induced by

changing magnetic fields.

16. Copper loss

Power loss caused by the resistance in the copper

windings, calculated as I²R.

17. Dielectric loss

Energy loss that occurs in the insulating material under

high voltage conditions.

18. Leakage flux

Magnetic field lines that escape the magnetic core and do

not contribute to energy transfer.

19. Faraday's Law

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 States that a changing magnetic flux through a coil
induces an EMF in the coil.

20. Lenz's Law

States that the direction of induced EMF always opposes

the change in magnetic flux that caused it.

21. Root Mean Square (RMS)

The effective value of an AC voltage or current, equivalent

to a DC value that produces the same heating effect.

22. Time-varying signal

An electrical signal (like AC) that changes with time in

magnitude and/or direction.

23. Power loss (I²R loss)

Energy lost as heat due to resistance in the conductor,

proportional to the square of the current.

24. Hot wire ammeter

An instrument that measures alternating current based on

the heating effect of current on a wire.

25. Hot wire voltmeter

A device that measures AC voltage using the thermal

expansion of a heated wire.

26. Self-designed transformer

A transformer built manually for experimental or

educational purposes, often with simple materials.

27. Reversing connections

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 Swapping the primary and secondary terminals to reverse
the step-up/step-down function.

28. Uniformly wound

Describes coils that are wrapped evenly and consistently

around the core.

29. Terminal (e.g., P1, P2, S1, S2)

Points of electrical connection to the primary and

secondary coils of the transformer.

13. Bibliography:
1. NCERT Class 12 Physics Textbook (Part 2)

Chapter: Electromagnetic Induction

Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), India

2. Halliday, Resnick, and Walker. "Fundamentals of

Physics", 10th Edition

Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.

3. Hughes, Edward. "Electrical and Electronic

Technology", 10th Edition

Pearson Education

4.
<[Link]

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 (Accessed for transformer theory, equations, and
diagrams)

5. <[Link]

(Used for simplified explanations of step-up and step-

down transformers)

6.
<[Link]
tic-induction/transformers/>

(Reference for transformer applications and derivations)

7. Khan Academy. "Transformers and Voltage"

8. CBSE Physics Laboratory Manual — Class 12

(Used for experimental setup, circuit diagrams, and

procedural structure)

9. Lab manual

(For experimental procedure, observations, and

apparatus selection)

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