ACTIVITY 2:

(a) Briefly describe the basic laws/principles of forensic science involved in solving a
crime case
Forensic science is guided by several fundamental principles. The basic Principles of
Forensic Science are:

i. Locard’s Principle of Mutual Exchange

Locard's Principle of Mutual Exchange is a theory that relates to the transfer of the trace
evidence between objects to which they come in contact with. The principle can also be
stated as:
"Every contact leaves a trace"
According to this principle, it is virtually impossible for a criminal to commit a crime
without leaving evidence behind and carrying away with him. Likewise, the criminal or
his instruments also pick up traces from same contact. If these trace evidences left on the
crime scene and accused are properly examined, these can establish a decisive link
between the suspect and the victim or ascertain their presence with the scene of crime,
which forms the basis of scientific crime investigation.
A criminal can leave all sorts of evidences, including fingerprints, footprints, hair, skin,
muscles, blood, bodily fluids, pieces of clothing and other types of evidences possible
according to the nature of crime. By coming into contact with these things at the crime
scene, a criminal also takes a part of that scene with him, whether it's dirt, hair or any
other type of trace evidence.

ii. Law of Individuality

Every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality which is not duplicated in any
other object or in other words. No two things in this universe are alike even when they
are manufactured in the same machine one after the other.
The most extensive work on this subject has been carried out on fingerprints. Several
fingerprints, up to the order of millions, have been examined but no two fingerprints;
even from two fingers of the same person have ever been found to be identical.

iii. Law of Progressive Change

According to this principle ‘Everything changes with the passage of time.’
Its impact on forensic science is immense. The criminal, the crime scene and object
involved in the crime all undergo changes, hence may become unrecognizable.
The rate of change varies tremendously with different type of objects. It has a giant
impact on the forensic science investigations. For example:
• The criminals undergo several progressive changes with time. If he is not apprehended
in time, he becomes unrecognizable except perhaps through his fingerprints, bone
fractures or any other characteristics of permanent nature, which may or may not be
always available, therefore not dependable.
• The scene of crime also undergoes rapid changes. The weather, the vegetable growth,
and the living beings (especially human-beings) make extensive changes in
comparatively short periods.
• The evidences involved in crime may be affected by external conditions/ change
gradually like the firearm barrels loosen, metal objects rust, the shoes or shoe prints
suffer additional wear and tear and the tools acquire new surface patterns.
So, the principle demands prompt action in criminal investigations.

iv. Principle of Comparison

This principle is very important particularly in the laboratory investigation i.e. the type of
specimen or sample required for comparison in the lab. It states that: ‘Only the likes can
be compared’.
It emphasizes the necessity to provide like/similar type of samples and specimens for
comparison with the questioned items. For example, in any murder case if a bullet is
found from the body of the deceased and the expert opinion states that the bullet has been
fired from a high velocity firearm, then it becomes useless to send in for a shotgun or
pistols or revolvers for comparison of the firearm under question.

v. Principle of Analysis
This principle has great significance in the laboratory investigation of the clue materials.
It states that: “The analysis can-be no better than the sample analyzed”.
Improper sampling, contaminations render the best analysis useless. This principle
emphasizes on the necessity to collect proper sample and properly packed for effective
use of experts.
In any rape case, the investigating officer collects the clothes of the victim, which carry
both blood, and semen stains. The investigating officer after properly drying the clothes
packs them in such a way that the affected area or areas containing stains should not
touch each other and not even to the walls of the container and sends them to forensic
science laboratory for examination. He wants to know if the clothes carry semen stains, if
so, to which blood group does the sample belongs.

vi. Law of Probability

 All identifications, be it a definite or an indefinite one, are made - consciously or
unconsciously, always on the basis of law of probability.
Probability is a mathematical concept, which determines the chances of occurrence of a
particular event in a particular way out of a number of ways in which the event can take
place or fail to take place with equal facility.
If P represents probability, Ns the number of ways in which the event can successfully
occur (with equal facility) and Nf the number of ways in which it can fail (with equal
facility), the probability of success is given by the formula:
P = Ns/Ns + Nf
If the event consists of two occurrences, which can take place independently, the
probability of the second occurrence is also given by the same formula. If we denote
probabilities of the first and second occurrences by attaching digits 1 and 2 to the
relevant letters, the net probability (P,) are given by the formula:
Pt = P1 X P2 = NS1/NS1 + Nf1 X NS2/NS2 + Nf2

vii. Problem of Proof

The question of proof in a criminal trial is becoming a difficult problem every day. It is
related with men, law and facts. The behaviour of the men is habituated by their
education, temperament, financial status, intelligence and their bias. The law varies from
land to land and is composed of enactments, rulings, conventions and precedence.
Changes in law are comparatively slow. The facts can be proved or may be disproved
owing to the circumstances and physical evidences, through the witnesses. Witness may
be eyewitness or they may be expert witness. The latter base their findings on scientific
observations. The evidence is scrutinized by counsels and evaluated by courts.

viii. Oral Evidence

The dependence on the oral evidence is placed in accordance with the observations of
eyewitness. Although, experiences and experiments have repeatedly proved that
sometimes these can be unreliable.

***

(b) Draw a schematic diagram or a flow chart to explain the organisational set up of
a forensic science laboratory
Forensic science laboratories typically have a hierarchical organizational structure
designed to efficiently carry out their multifaceted functions.
 ***

(c) Identify the basic principle(s) involved in solving the crime case narrated in
activity 1 or in any other case.

In the 2004 double murder in Sweden Case Study, I could identify the following basic
principles of forensic science involved in solving the crime case.

i. Locard’s Principle of Mutual Exchange

This theory basically says, ‘Every contact leaves a trace’, and it was true in the case of the
2004 Sweden double murder. The police were able to find the perpetrator’s DNA at the scene,
the weapon that was used, and a bloody cap.
This DNA imprint helped the police crack the case; they were able to use the method of
Investigative Genetic Genealogy to match the DNA left on the crime scene on a popular
genealogy website. DNA data sets were established and searched within both GEDmatch and
FamilyTree DNA genealogy databases.
His DNA was taken and matched 100%.

ii. Law of Individuality

This theorem states that every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality which cannot
be duplicated. Because of the suspect’s unique DNA imprint, the police were able to match
the DNA found at the scene to Daniel Nyqvist.

iii. Principle of Analysis

The suspect’s DNA was found at the scene of crime along with a bloody weapon.
Extensive DNA analysis, including whole-genome sequencing and genotype imputation, was
applied and DNA data sets were established and searched within both GEDmatch and
FamilyTree DNA genealogy databases. Through proper sampling and analysis, the police
were able to match the DNA imprint on the crime scene to that of the suspect’s.

iv. Law of Probability

The case study reflects the law of probability in forensic identification. Despite 15 years of
investigation, over 9000 interrogations, and mass DNA screening of more than 6000 men, no
direct match was found, showing the extremely low probability of identifying the perpetrator
in such a large pool. Advanced genomic analysis and genealogy databases like GEDmatch
and FamilyTree DNA were then used, which led to the discovery of distant relatives and the
creation of family trees. This work narrowed the suspects to two brothers. Finally, routine
STR profiling confirmed that one of them matched the crime scene samples. Each stage of
investigation thus reduced the number of possible candidates and increased the probability of
success, culminating in a conclusive identification.

v. Oral Evidence
Daniel had been charged with the 2004 murder of a 56-year-old woman and an eight-year-old
boy. The two victims – who were unrelated – were stabbed in a random act in the quiet
southern Swedish town of Linkoping. There were oral witness descriptions of the
involvement of a young man with blonde hair.

***