Unit 1

Set Theory
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcome
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Concept of Set
3.2 Families of Set
3.3 Set Operations
3.4 Algebra of Sets
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Exercises
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

In this unit, we study the fundamental discrete structure on which all other discrete structures
are built, namely, the set. Sets are used to group objects together. Often, but not always, the
objects in a set have similar properties. For instance, all the students who are currently
enrolled in your school make up a set. Likewise, all the students currently taking a course in
discrete mathematics at any school make up a set. In addition, those students enrolled in
your school who are taking a course in discrete mathematics form a set that can be obtained
by taking the elements common to the first two collections. We begin the study with concepts
of Set, followed by families of sets, their operations and algebra of sets.
2.0 Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of Set.
2. Identify and perform several operations that will combine given sets to yield new sets.
3. Differentiate between different types of sets.
4. Know the algebraic properties of sets operations.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Concept of Sets
Definition: A set is a well-defined collection of objects, called elements or members of the
set. A set is said to contain its elements. We write a  A to denote that a is an element of the
set A . The notation a  A denotes that a is not an element of the set A .
It is common for sets to be denoted using uppercase letters. Lowercase letters are usually
used to denote elements of sets. There are several ways to describe a set. One way is to list
all the members of a set, when this is possible. We use a notation where all members of the
set are listed between braces. For example, the notation {a, b, c, d} represents the set with
the four elements a, b, c, and d. This way of describing a set is known as the roster method.
Example 3.1:
1. The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
2. The set O of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
3. The set of positive integers less than 100 can be denoted by {1, 2, 3, . . . , 99}.
Another way to describe a set is to use set builder notation. We characterize all those
elements in the set by stating the property or properties they must have to be members.
Example 3.2: For instance, the set O of all odd positive integers less than 10 can be written
as
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}, or, specifying the universe as the set of
positive integers, as O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}.
We often use this type of notation to describe sets when it is impossible to list all the
elements
of the set. For instance, the set Q + of all positive rational numbers can be written as
Q + = {x  \ x = p q for some positive integers p and q}. These sets, each denoted using a
boldface letter, play an important role in mathematics:
N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of natural numbers
Z = {. . . ,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}, the set of integers
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of positive integers
Q = {p/q | p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, and q = 0}, the set of rational numbers
R, the set of real numbers
R+, the set of positive real numbers
C, the set of complex numbers.

3.2 Families of Sets

The relationship between sets are represented by families of a set. The following are the
families of a set:
(a). Equal Sets: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Therefore, if
A and B are sets, then A and B are equal, if and only if ∀ x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B). We write A = B if
A and B are equal sets.
Example: The sets {1, 3, 5} and {3, 5, 1} are equal, because they have the same elements.
Note that the order in which the elements of a set are listed does not matter. Note also that it
does not matter if an element of a set is listed more than once, so {1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5} is the
same as the set {1, 3, 5} because they have the same elements.

(b). Empty Sets: There is a special set that has no elements. This set is called the empty
set, or null set and is denoted by ∅. The empty set can also be denoted by { } (that is, we
represent the empty set with a pair of braces that encloses all the elements in this set). Often,
a set of elements with certain properties turns out to be the empty/null set. For instance, the
set of all positive integers that are greater than their squares are the null/empty set. A set with
one element is called a singleton set. A common error is to confuse the empty {∅} has one
more element than ∅. set ∅ with the set {∅}, which is a singleton set. The single element of
the set {∅} is the empty set itself! A useful analogy for remembering this difference is to think
of folders in a computer file system. The empty set can be thought of as an empty folder and
the set consisting of just the empty set can be thought of as a folder with exactly one folder
inside, namely, the empty folder.

(c). Subsets: Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a set B, that is,
suppose a ∈ A implies a ∈ B. Then A is called a subset of B. We also say that A is contained
in B or that B contains A. This relationship is written A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A. Two sets are equal if
they both have the same elements or, equivalently, if each is contained in the other. That is,
A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
If A is not a subset of B, that is, if at least one element of A does not belong to B, then we
write A⊆ B.
Example: Consider the sets: A = {1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9}, B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, C= {1, 3}.
Then C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B since 1 and 3, the elements of C, are also members of A and B. But B
 A since some of the elements of B, e.g., 2 and 5, do not belong to A. Similarly, A  B.
2. Examine the subsets from the following sets:
(i) The set of all odd positive integers less than 10 is a subset of the set of all positive
integers less than 10,
(ii) The set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of real numbers.
(iii) The set of all Mathematics majors at your school is a subset of the set of all students at
your school.
(iv) The set of all people in China is a subset of the set of all people in China (that is, it is a
subset of itself).
(v) The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a subset of the set of nonnegative
integers. because −1 is in the former set [as ( −1)  100 ], but not the later set.
2

(vi) The set of people who have taken Linear Algebra at your school is not a subset of the set
of all Mathematics majors at your school, if there is at least one student who has taken Linear
Algebra who is not a Mathematics major.

(d) Finite/Infinite Sets

Sets are used extensively in counting problems, and for such applications we need to discuss
the sizes of sets. Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a
nonnegative integer, we say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The
cardinality of S is denoted by |S|.
Example: Examine the finite sets;
1. Let A be the set of odd positive integers less than 10. Then |A| = 5.
2. Let S be the set of letters in the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26.
3. Because the null set has no elements, it follows that |∅| = 0.

A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite. The set of positive integers is infinite.

(d). Power Sets: Many problems involve testing all combinations of elements of a set to see
if they satisfy some property. To consider all such combinations of elements of a set S, we
build a new set that has as its members all the subsets of S. If S is a set, then the set of all
subsets of S is called the power set of S and is demoted by P(S).
Example: Let us examine some power sets;
1. What is the power set of the set {0, 1, 2}?
Solution: The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}. Hence,
P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of this set of subsets.
2. What is the power set of the empty set {∅}?
Solution: The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself. Consequently, P(∅) = {∅}.
The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, namely, ∅ and the set {∅} itself. Therefore, P({∅}) = {∅,
{∅}}.
(f). Disjoint Sets: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in
common, that is if their intersection is the empty set.
Examples;
1. Examine if the following sets A = {1, 2}, B= {4, 5, 6}, and C = {5, 6, 7, 8} are disjoint?
Ans: A and B are disjoint, and A and C are disjoint. But B and C are not disjoint since B and
C have elements in common, e.g., 5 and 6. We note that if A and B are disjoint, then neither
is a subset of the other (unless one is the empty set).
2. Check if A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} are disjoint set.
Ans: For the fact that A ∩ B = ∅, then it implies that A and B are disjoint.

Universal Set: All sets under investigation in any application of set theory are assumed to
belong to some fixed large set called the universal set which we denote by U unless
otherwise stated or implied.
Example: Let U be the set of students at a university, and let M denote the set of male
students and let F denote the set of female students. The U is the disjoint union of M of F;
that is,
U = M ∪ F and M ∩ F = ∅
This comes from the fact that every student in U is either in M or in F, and clearly no student
belongs to both M and F, that is, M and F are disjoint.
We are often interested in finding the cardinality of a union of two finite sets A and B. Note
that |A| + |B| counts each element that is in A but not in B or in B but not in A exactly once, Be
careful not to overcount! and each element that is in both A and B exactly twice. Thus, if the
number of elements that are in both A and B is subtracted from |A| + |B|, elements in A ∩ B
will be counted only once. Hence, |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.
The generalization of this result to unions of an arbitrary number of sets is called the principle
of inclusion–exclusion. The principle of inclusion–exclusion is an important technique used in
enumeration.

Venn diagrams: A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets in which sets are
represented by enclosed areas in the plane. The universal set U is represented by the interior
of a rectangle, and the other sets are represented by disks lying within the rectangle. If A ⊆ B,
then the disk representing A will be entirely within the disk representing B as in Fig. 1-1(a). If
A and B are disjoint, then the disk representing A will be separated from the disk representing
B as in Fig. 1-1(b). However, if A and B are two arbitrary sets, it is possible that some objects
are in A but not in B, some are in B but not in A, some are in both A and B, and some are in
neither A nor B; hence in general we represent A and B as in Fig. 1-1(c).
3.3 Set Operations
Union: Let A and B be sets, then union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that
contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both. An element x belongs to the
union of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs to A or x belongs to B. This tells us that
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}. We will give some examples of the union of sets.
Example: Obtain the union of the sets A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
(1). Find the union of the sets A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}.
Ans: A ∪ B is the set of elements that belongs to either A or B, that is, A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5} ∪ {1,
2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 5}.
(2). Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 8, 9} and C = {1, 3, 6, 8}, then obtain their union.
Ans: Their union is the set of elements that belongs to either A, B or C. Hence, A ∪ B ∪ C =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
.
Intersection: Let A and B be sets, then intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is
the set containing those elements in both A and B. An element x belongs to the intersection
of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs to A and x belongs to B. This tells us that
A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Example: Find the intersect of A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
(1). The intersection of the sets (A & B) is the element that is both in A and B. This gives A ∩
B = {1, 3, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3} = {1, 3}.
(2). Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 8, 9} and C = {1, 3, 6, 8}. Then A ∩ B ∩ C is the set of
elements that belongs to A, B and C. Hence, A ∩ B ∩ C = {1, 3}

Complement: If U is a universal set containing A, then U – A is called the compliment of A

and is denoted as AC . Thus, AC / A / A = { all elements in U that are not in A}.
Example;
Let U = {1,2, …, 9} be the universal set, and let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, C= {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, D= {1, 3,
5, 7, 9}, then obtain the following sets; AC , BC , DC
Ans: AC = {6, 7, 8, 9}; B C = {1, 2, 3, 8, 9}; D C = {2, 4, 6, 8}

Difference: If A and B are two sets, we define the difference of B with respect to A as the set
of all elements that belongs to A but not to B, denoted A − B , or A\B, then
A − B =  x / x  A and x  B . Also, the difference of A with respect to B is the set of all
elements that belongs to B but not to A, denoted as B − A or B\A.
Examples:
1. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d, e}, then A\B = {a} and B\A = {d, e}.
2. Obtain B\A, D\E for the sets; A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, E= {2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, D= {1,
3, 5, 7, 9}. Ans: B\A = {6, 7}; D\E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Symmetric difference: Assume A and B are two sets, we define the symmetric difference
as the set of all elements that belongs to A or B but not to both A and B, the notation for this
operation is A ⊕ B. This implies that A ⊕ B = {x | x ∈ A and x  B}.
Example:
[Link] A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, c, e, f, g}, then A ⊕ B = {b, d, e, f, g}.
It is easy to see that A ⊕ B = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).
2. Suppose U = N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} is the universal set. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B= {3, 4, 5, 6, 7},
C= {2, 3, 8, 9}, E= {2, 4, 6, . . .} (Here E is the set of even integers.) Then:
A ⊕ B = (A\B) ∪ (B\A) = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7}, B⊕ C = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
A ⊕ C = (A\C) ∪ (B\C) = {1, 4, 8, 9}, A⊕ E = {1, 3, 6, 8, 10, . . .}.

Recaps on Set operation;

i. The union A∪B consists of those elements in either A or B (or both),
ii. The intersection A∩B consists of those elements in both A and B.
iii. The complements A consists of those elements in U which do not belong to A.
iv. The difference A\B consists of the elements in A which do not belong to B.
v. The symmetric difference A ⊕ B consists of the elements in A or in B but not in both.

3.4 Algebra of Sets

The operations on sets that we have just defined satisfy many algebraic properties, some of
which resembles the algebraic properties satisfied by the real numbers and their operations.
There are some theorems associated with algebra of sets and they are;
Theorem 1: The operations defined on sets satisfies the following Set Identities:

Table 1: Sets Identities

Properties Identities
Commutative Property 1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A
2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Associative Property 3. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
4. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

Distributive Property 5. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
6. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ (A ∪ C)

Idempotent Property 7. A ∪ B = A
8. A ∩ A = A

Property of Complement 9. A A =U
10. A  A = 
Property of a Universal Set 11. A ∪ U = U
12. A ∩ U = A

Property of Empty Set 13. A ∪  = A or A ∪ {} = A

 14. A ∩  =  or A ∩ {} = {}

Theorem 2: If A and B are finite sets, then |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B|.

Proof: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {c, e, f, h, k, m} and A ∩ B = {c, e}. Also, |A| = 5, |B| = 6,
|A ∪ B| = 9 and |A ∩ B| = 2. Then, |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B| = 5 + 6 – 2 = 9 and the theorem is
verified.

Theorem 3: If A, B and C are finite sets, then |A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| - |A ∩ B| - |A ∩ C| -

|B ∩ C|- |A ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|
Proof: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {a, b, e, g, h} and C = {b, d, e, g, h, k, m, n}. We have;
A ∪ B ∪ C = {a, b, c, d, e, g, h, k, m, n}, |A ∪ B ∪ C| =10
A ∩ B = {a, b, e}, |A ∩ B| = 3
A ∩ C = {b, d, e}, |A ∩ C| = 3
B ∩ C = {b, d, e, g, h}, |B ∩ C| = 4
A ∩ B ∩ C = {b, e}, |A ∩ B ∩ C| = 2
Therefore, |A| + |B| + |C| - |A ∩ B| - |A ∩ C| - |B ∩ C|- |A ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ C| = 5+5+8-3-3-
4+2=10 and the theorem is verified.

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you have been taught the concept of sets, the various operations that can be
performed on sets through set operations. The strategy to obtain sets from any two or more
sets using the associated algebraic properties of sets. The various types of sets and their
notations. You have also learnt ways to write the Venn diagram for families of sets and
compute various algebraic operations and how to solve problems related sets.

5.0 Summary
In this unit you have studied:
1. The concept of Sets.
2. How to identify the different types of sets.
3. The associated operations on sets.
4. How to obtain new sets from given sets using algebraic properties of sets for any given
problem.

6.0 Exercises
1. Let the Universal set U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, k}, A = {a, b, c, g,} and B = {d, e, f, g}, C = {a,
c, f} and D = {f, h, k}, Compute the following sets;

(i) A ∪ B (ii) B ∪ C (iii) A ∩ C (iv) B ∩ D (v) A – B (vi) A

(vii) C ∩ D (viii) A ∩ D (ix) C – B (x) B – C
2. Suppose that A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {2, 6}, C = {4, 6}, and D = {4, 6, 8}. Determine which of
these sets are subsets of the other sets.
3. Define the following sets with examples; (i)Subset (ii) Equal set (iii) Finite set (iv)Infinite set
4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 3, 6}. Find (a) A ∪ B (b) A ∩ B (c) A\B (d) B\A.
5. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. Find (a) A ∪ B (b) A ∩ B (c) A\B (d) B\A.
6. Let U = {1,2, …, 9} be the universal set, and let
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, C= {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, D= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9},
E= {2, 4, 6, 8}, F = {1, 5, 9}.
Find: (a) A ∪ B and A ∩ B; (b) A ∪ C and A ∩ C; (c) D ∪ F and D ∩ F.
(d) C – B; (e) A\B, B\A, D\E; (f)A ⊕ B, C ⊕ D, E ⊕ F

7.0 References/Further Reading

S. Lipschutz, M. Lipson. (2007). Theory and Problems of Discrete Mathematics. 3rd edition,
McGraw-HilL Company, New York, USA. P490.

B. KolmanI, R. C. Busby, S. Ross. (1996). Discrete Mathematical Structures. 3rd edition.

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, P544.

K. H. Rosen (2012). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. 7th Edition.

McGraw-HilL Company, New York, USA.