CHAPTER 2
5 ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Light
2. Sensitized Material
3. Camera
4. Lens
5. Chemical Process
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1. Pinhole method- Is the oldest method of forming image where a
box camera with a very small hole without lens is use to collect light
and form Image.
2. Shadow method- This method is the principle involved in the use of
X-ray machine.
3. Lens method- Is the modern method of forming image by light
action passing a lens.
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• Light is one of a number of known forms of radiant
electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion. This
form of energy travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles
per second in air, but they differ in wavelength and
frequency.
• Wavelength is the distance from the crest (highest point) to
the wave to the next succeeding crest while
• Frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point
in one second. The product of the two is the speed of
travel.
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• The speed of the various radiant energy is constant at a
given medium, but varies with other media. For example,
the speed of light in ordinary glass is only about two-third
of its speed in air. Actually, it is only the wavelength that
changes, frequency remains constant.
• However frequency is much more difficult to measure,
wavelength could be determined with accuracy. Hence, we
identify a particular radiation by its wavelength.
• Wavelength is measured by the angstrom unit or in terms
of milli-microns (English system of measure) or nanometer
(metric system of measure) which is equivalent to one
over one millionth of a millimeter.
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Millimicron- is the units of light wavelength which is
equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the,
Angstrom- is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent
measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter.
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men
see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the
spectrum.
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• Cosmic rays
• Gamma rays
• X-rays
• Ultraviolet rays
• visible light
• infrared rays
• heat rays
• Hertzian waves
• the alternating current oscillations
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Presentation title 69
• X-rays
• ultraviolet rays
• visible light
• infrared rays
They are sometimes referred to as the four photographic rays of
modern photography.
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1.
• Light with the wavelength between 1 to 30
millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric
current through a special type of vacuum tube.
• It was discovered by Conrad Wilhelm Rontgen.
• This type of light works in the principle of shadow
photography.
Presentation title 71
2.
• Radiation having a wavelength of 300 to 400
nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in
multicolored background, documents that are altered,
decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible
writing.
• It is commercially known as "black Light".
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3.
• Is the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700
millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes.
Different application of visible light
1. Direct light examination- Designed to provide support light in
photographing.
2. Side light examination/Oblique light examination- Is light coming
from one side at a very low angle use in erasure and Indented
writing.
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3. Transmitted light examination- Light comes from the back or
bottom. Used in examination of watermarks, fiber arrangement and
sequence of strokes.
4.
• Considered as the photographic rays with the longest
wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons.
• It is designed to take photograph of over-written
documents, obliterated writing, and charred
documents or for black out photography.
• Sometimes referred to as heat rays.
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• Light as a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by the
naked eye. The scientific definition of light is the aspect of radiant
energy of which a human observer is aware through the visual
sensations which arise from the stimulation of the retina of the
eye. (Webster Dictionary)
• Light rays with a wavelength of 400 to 700 nm is referred to as
visible light because it is only within these wavelengths that the
human eye is capable of perceiving. Those with shorter or longer
wavelength are commonly referred as visible radiations.
• By definition all lights are visible. For this reason the word
"visible" is superfluous in that common expression "visible light".
What the eye cannot see are referred to as radiations.
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Light energy has several effects on an object. It is either;
• Reflected
• Absorbed
• transmitted or converted
**The varying combinations of this reflectance and absorption
are what give us the wide variety of colors which we are able to
perceive, at times, other light are neither reflected nor absorbed
but it is transmitted through the object. This transmitted light
passing through the object and allows a viewer on the other side
of the object to perceive these light waves.
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The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be
converted to another wavelength. This conversion is known as
luminescence.
1. Fluorescence is the ability of an object to convert one
wavelength to another as long as the active energy source is
irradiating the object.
2. Phosphorescence the object not only converts the wavelength
while being irradiated but continuous to reflect the new
wavelength for a period of time after the energy.
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White Light
• When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nanometers are presented
to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we get the sensation of perception of
colorless or white light.
• If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass through a prism it will
bend the light of shorter wavelength more than those with longer
wavelength thus spreading them out into the visible spectrum.
• These are the colors of the rainbow- the red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet.
Figure 3
The prism breaks its white light
in its different wavelength
producing the colors of the
rainbow.
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[Link]– 400-500 millimicron
[Link]- 500-600 millimicron
[Link]- 600-700 millimicron
Presentation title 80
1. Cyan 1. Rose violet
2. Yellow 2. Azure aquamarine
3. Magenta 3. Chartreuse orange
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PRISM
Is a solid for dispersing light; it is transparent
polygonal solid object with flat faces and
usually a triangular cross section, used for
separating white light into spectrum of
colors. Light rays bend twice when passing
through a prism.
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DISPERSION COLOR
may arise from differences in the refractive
or bending power of a transparent medium
of light of different wavelength.
The rainbow is a good example of this
phenomenon.
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Attributes of Color
According to the modern scientific
definition of color, it is not legitimate to ascribe
color to an object but only to the light reflected
from it. Thus any color perception has three
characteristics, any one of which can be varied
independently of the other two. These are hue,
saturation, and brightness.
Bending of Light
When travelling in open space, light travels
in straight line. However, when light comes in
contact with an object, it may be bended in the
following manner.
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Different bending of light as it passes through an object.
a. Regular reflection- happens when light hits a flat smooth and shiny surface.
b. Irregular reflection- occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object. 86
Refraction – the bending of light
when passing from one medium to
another. Change direction a it pass
from one medium to another.
Diffraction-the bending of light when
hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.
Slight bending of light as it passer
around the edge of an object.
Kinds of objects as to how behave to light
1. Transparent objects- allows sufficient
visible light to pass through them that
the object on the other side may be
clearly seen.
2. Translucent objects- allows light to
pass, however diffuse it sufficiently
that objects on the other side may not
be clearly distinguished. In some
cases the objects on the other side
may be recognizable but sharp detail
and outline are obscured.
3. Opaque objects- so greatly diffuse
the light that recognizing the object on
the other side is very difficult if not
impossible.
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SOURCES OF LIGHT
1. Natural light source- those coming from
nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies,
lightning, fire, etc. while all of these sources could now be
used for photographic use, for practical reasons, the
discussion will be limited to sunlight only. With sunlight
there are actually several sources. Primarily those coming
directly from the sun. secondarily those being reflected y
clouds or the sky. The intensity of sunlight falling on an
object in open space varies depending on the weather
condition, time of the day, or even time of the year. For a
more accurate exposure setting at daylight, only one
characteristics is considered- the kind of shadow casted by
an object in open space.
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1. Bright sunlight- a lightning condition where
objects in open space cast a deep and
uniform or distinct shadow.
2. Hazy sunlight- objects in open space cast a
transparent shadow.
3. Dull sunlight- objects in open space cast no
shadow.
a. Cloudy bright- objects b. Cloudy dull- objects in
in open space cast no open space cast no
shadow but at far shadow and visibility of
distance are clearly distant objects are
already limited.
visible.
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SOURCES OF LIGHT
2. Artificial light source- Light sources of
this category are man made and is divided into
the continuous radiation and the short duration.
a. Continuous radiation- are those that can give
illumination continuously. The common light source of
this kind are the fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamp,
carbon arc lamp, photoflood lamp, gas lamp and etc
b. Short duration (flash unit)- a flash unit gives a brief
flash of light produced by a burning metallic wire (flash
bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas filled tube
(electronic flash).
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FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES
1. UltRaviolet laMP- Ultraviolet lamp used in forensic
work come in variety of shape, sizes and power. Some units
are portable battery operated and are easily carried and can
meet the rugged and rigorous demand for field work.
The ultraviolet radiation is broken down into the long wave
U.V. the long wave UV is used in a wide variety of
applications in medical and forensics. The medium wave UV
is often used in chemical analysis and in curing and hardening
of different item for industrial applications. The short-wave
UV is used for variety of purpose such as to sterilize air and
place of work. It is an effective germicide, destroying many
biological contaminations.
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FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES
2. LASER- Light Amplification through Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
• Although developed years earlier it was in 1970’s that it
was discovered that by illuminating certain items with
LASER, they would fluoresce or could be made to stand
out in sharp contrast from their background. This was
especially significant in locating dried biological stains
such as semen, urine and saliva, as well as stains that
had been washed. The LASER stimulation of these
items provided a way for the criminalist to finally see,
locate and visually record evidence that they known that
they had been missing. The only drawback of LASER is
their cost, they are quite expensive.
• LASER is also known as coherent light.
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FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES
3. alteRnative light soURce
• The Alternative Light Sources was developed in mid 1980’s as a far more
inexpensive alternative to forensic LASER. The ALS uses a variety of
band pass filters to provide a high intensity beam of non-coherent light.
These multiple bands pass filter allows the operator to match the LASER
frequency available at crime scene.
• Additional wavelength were included to allow the ALS technology had
advanced to a point whereby using the combination of filter and adjustable
iris to control the width of the transmission band , various wavelength from
UV to IR may be digitally selected. This allows the operator to scan an
almost endless variety of wavelength instead of being restricted to the
specific band pass filter capabilities.
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FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES
4. FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE
• The FLS is a term being applied to wide variety of relatively inexpensive light sources which use
filtered white light. A band of pass filter allows a fairly narrow band of light to pass through. The
object is then radiated with what is normally about 400-500 nanometer light source.
• The strobe shift of a specifically developed luminescent fingerprint powder which also falls within
the strobe shift of most biological powder. This will enable a criminalist to search latent fingerprints of
rough surfaces. The white light source used latent fingerprints of rough surfaces. The white light source
used with the FLS is as simple as a maglight type handled flashlight or a spotlight with the filter in
place.
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CHAPTER 4
Film
Electronic sensor or imager, it converts the light
that strikes it into digital information that can be
stored in computer memory or the light strikes a
grid of tiny picture elements or pixels.
Presentation title 97
Types of film
1. BLACK AND WHITE FILM- usually represented by a prefix or a suffix
Pan or Ortho and generally used in black and white photography.
• Ex. Ortholith film, TRi- X-Pan, and Pan X-Plus
2. COLORED FILM- can be divided into two: the Negative type and
the reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having
names ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter.
(Negative= Color) (Reversal=Chrome)
Presentation title 98
A. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS
[Link]
• Photographic emulsion is that part of the film or
photographic paper which contains the silver grains
which is the one sensitive to light.
• Silver halide emulsions are universally sensitive to
the ultraviolet radiations and some wavelengths of blue
light. They can be made sensitive to other colors of
light and the near infrared radiation by the addition of
special sensitizing dye. Gelatin is universally used as
the medium that holds the crystals in emulsion.
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[Link] or antihalation Backing
• This layer is placed between
the emulsion and the plastic
base of a film to prevent
whatever light that passes
through the emulsion and
reflected by the base back to
the emulsion which forms a
“halo”.
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3. Base
• Generally film base are made of plastic
material they serve a support to the
emulsion.
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1. Emulsion speed
a) ASA (American Standard Association)
rating. This is expressed in arithmetical
value. The speed in numbers is directly
proportional to the sensitivity of the
materials. A film with an arithmetical value
of 400 is four times as fast as one with
speed of 100. (ANSI-American National
Standards Institute)
Presentation title 103
1. Emulsion speed
b) DIN (Deutche Industri
Normen) rating which is
expressed in logarithmic value.
In this system an increase of 3
degrees double the sensitivity
of the film.
Presentation title 104
1. Emulsion speed
c) ISO (International Standard
Organizaton) rating. This is
expressed in the combined
arithmetical and logarithmic
values. (ASA and DIN)
Presentation title 105
The different emulsion speed ratings are:
ASA 12 DIN 12 ISO 12/12
ASA 25 DIN 15 ISO 25/15
ASA 50 DIN 18 ISO 50/18
ASA 100 DIN 21 ISO 100/21
ASA 200 DIN 24 ISO 200/24
ASA 400 DIN 27 ISO 400/27
ASA 800 DIN 30 ISO 800/30
ASA 1600 DIN 33 ISO 1600/33
In the market, ASA 100 commonly referred to as the
plus X, the ASA 200 as the double X, and the ASA 400 as the
4X.
2. Spectral Sensitivity- the responsiveness of the
film emulsion to the different wavelength of the
light course.
a) Blue sensitive film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays
and blue light only.
b) Orthochromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet
rays and blue and green color light only. Not
sensitive to red color.
c) Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet
radiation to blue, green and red light or all colors.
d) Infra-red film- sensitive to ultraviolet rays , to
blue green red light and infrared rays.
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DARK ROOM
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Presentation title 110
3. Granularity or graininess
This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that
are formed after development of an exposed film.
Generally, the size of metallic silver grains are dependent
on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of
developing solution that is used in processing. The rule is
the lower the emulsion speed rating of the film. The finer is
the grain and conversely, the higher the emulsion speed
rating of the film, the bigger are the grains. Likewise, a
film developer will produce a finer grain than a paper
developer when used for film processing.
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B. COLOR FILMS
• A color film is multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base.
The top emulsion is sensitive to blue light only. Since green and red light
passes through it without effect, the blue light alone makes the
exposure. A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs any
unused blue light and prevents it from reaching the two lower emulsion
layer. The yellow color in the filter layer have no permanent effect on
the appearance of the film because it is destroyed during processing .
the middle emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to red light. Like
all emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive to blue light but the blue
light cannot reach it.
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B. COLOR FILMS
The exposure in this layer is therefore made by green
light alone. The bottom layer is sensitive to red light, but
its sensitivity to green light is so low as to be negligible.
Hence, the exposure in this layer is made by red light
alone. These three emulsion layers are coated on a film
base which has an anti-halation backing.
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1. Negative or non-reversal film
• These suffix “color” is given to negative or non-
reversal film. This film yields either a negative or a
positive image depending on how it is used.
Examples are : kodacolor, fujicolor, agfacolor, etc.
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2. Reversal film
• The suffix “chrome” is applied to reversal material. This
film when processed a positive image or transparency for
projection viewing. examples are: Kodachrome,
ektachrome, fujichrome, agfchrome, etc.
.
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Like the B&W films , color films also have emulsion
speed with the same indicators (ASA, DIN, ISO)
• For sizes, there are 8mm., 16mm., 135 mm.,
120mm., 127mm., for roll films and the 2-1/2” x
3-1/2”, 4”x5”x7”. 8”x10”. 11”x14” and 16”x 24”
for sheet films.
• For number of exposures, there are 12
exposures, 24 exposures and the 36 exposures.
Presentation title 119
C. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS (BLACK
AND WHITE)
• Modern photographic papers are basically composed of a light
sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper base or support. The
emulsion suspended on a gelatin is generally made of silver
halide salts. To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical
solutions and water during processing and washing, as well as
the variety of degree in humidity and temperature, the base is
made of wood pulp.
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A. EMULSION SPEED
1. Chloride paper- has slow speed and suited for
contact printing. The size of the positive print is
the same size of the negative used. Sensitivity to
light is low and give blue-black tones when
properly developed.
2. Bromide paper- has a fast speed and is
recommended for projection printing or
enlarging process. Most ideal photo paper used
for police photography. Black tone when
properly developed.
3. Chloro-bromide paper -is a multi-speed and
could be used in both contact printing and
enlarging.
Presentation title 121
Presentation title 122
