BASIC ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

Question Bank with Answers

I Semester – Computer Science and Engineering

Academic Year 2025–26

Prepared by

Sheri Abhishek Reddy

Contents

1 DC Circuits 2

2 AC Circuits 15

3 Transformers 34

4 Electrical Machines 47

5 Electrical Installations 63

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UNIT – 1 DC Circuits

Part A – Two Mark Questions

1. What are the different circuit elements?

1. Circuit elements are the basic components used to construct an electrical

circuit.
2. The main passive elements are resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
3. Active elements include voltage sources and current sources.
4. These elements control the flow, storage, and conversion of electrical en-
ergy.

2. Define a current source.

1. A current source is an active element that delivers a constant current to a

load.
2. The output current remains constant irrespective of load resistance.
3. An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.
4. Practical current sources have high but finite internal resistance.

3. Define a voltage source.

1. A voltage source is an active element that maintains a constant voltage

across its terminals.
2. The terminal voltage remains constant irrespective of load current.
3. An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.
4. Practical voltage sources possess small but finite internal resistance.

4. State Ohm’s law and give its limitation.

1. Ohm’s law states that - "Under constant temperature, current through a

conductor is directly proportional to the applied voltage."
2. Mathematically, it is expressed as V = IR, where R is resistance.
3. The law is valid only when temperature and physical conditions remain
constant.
4. It is not applicable to non-linear devices such as diodes and transistors.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

5. State Kirchhoff’s Laws.

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
at a node is zero.
2. KCL is based on the principle of conservation of charge.
3. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages
around a closed loop is zero.
4. KVL is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

6. Write the statement of Thevenin’s theorem.

1. Thevenin’s theorem is applicable to linear bilateral networks.

2. Any such network can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source.
3. The equivalent voltage source is in series with an equivalent resistance.
4. The equivalent circuit produces the same terminal characteristics as the
original network.

7. State Superposition theorem.

1. Superposition theorem is applicable to linear electrical networks.

2. It states that the response in any element is the algebraic sum of responses
due to each independent source acting alone.
3. While considering one source, all other voltage sources are short-circuited
and current sources are open-circuited.
4. The theorem is used to simplify the analysis of circuits with multiple
sources.

8. What is Norton’s theorem?

1. Norton’s theorem is applicable to linear bilateral networks.

2. Any such network can be replaced by an equivalent current source in par-
allel with a resistance.
3. The Norton current is the short-circuit current across the terminals.
4. The Norton resistance is the equivalent resistance seen from the terminals
with sources deactivated.

9. If the supply voltage V = 230 V and load power is 460 W, find the load
resistance.

V2
1. The power relation is given by P = .
R
(230)2
2. Substituting values: 460 = .
R
2302
3. Rearranging, R = .
460
4. Therefore, the load resistance is R = 115 Ω.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Part B – Five Mark Questions

1. What is the classification of circuit elements? Give examples of each.

1. Circuit elements are the basic building blocks used to construct electrical net-
works.
2. Based on energy interaction, elements are classified as active and passive ele-
ments.
3. Active elements are capable of supplying energy to the circuit, such as voltage
and current sources.
4. Passive elements do not generate energy but store or dissipate energy, such as
resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
5. Based on direction of operation, elements are classified as unilateral and bilat-
eral elements.
6. Unilateral elements have different characteristics in forward and reverse direc-
tions, for example, a diode.
7. Bilateral elements exhibit identical characteristics in both directions of current
flow, such as resistors.
8. Based on linearity, elements are classified as linear and non-linear elements.
9. Linear elements follow linear relationships between voltage and current, such as
resistors.
10. Non-linear elements do not follow linear V–I characteristics, such as diodes and
transistors.
11. Based on physical distribution of parameters, elements are classified as lumped
and distributed elements.
12. Lumped elements have parameters concentrated at a single point, such as dis-
crete resistors and capacitors.
13. Distributed elements have parameters spread along their length, such as trans-
mission lines.

2. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws with an example.

1. Kirchhoff’s laws are fundamental laws used for the analysis of electrical circuits.
2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents at a
node is zero.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

3. KCL is based on the principle of conservation of electric charge.

4. The total current entering a node is equal to the total current leaving the node.
5. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around
any closed loop is zero.

6. KVL is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

7. Voltage rises and drops are considered using proper sign convention.
8. Consider a simple loop containing a battery and resistors.
9. The sum of voltage drops across resistors equals the supply voltage.
10. Hence, Kirchhoff’s laws provide a systematic approach for circuit analysis.

3. Explain Mesh Analysis.

Definition:
1. Mesh analysis is a systematic method based on Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL).
2. It is applicable only to planar electrical networks.
Procedure:
3. Identify all independent meshes in the circuit.
4. Assume a mesh current in each loop, usually clockwise.
5. Apply KVL to each mesh in terms of mesh currents.
6. Consider common elements using current differences.
7. Form simultaneous linear equations.
8. Solve the equations to obtain mesh currents.
9. Determine branch currents and voltages if required.
10. Mesh analysis reduces the number of equations compared to branch anal-
ysis.

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4. Explain Nodal Analysis.

Definition:
1. Nodal analysis is a circuit analysis technique based on Kirchhoff’s Current
Law (KCL).
2. It is applicable to both planar and non-planar networks.
Procedure:
3. Select a reference (ground) node.
4. Assign voltages to remaining nodes with respect to the reference node.
5. Apply KCL at each non-reference node.
6. Express currents using Ohm’s law.
7. Form simultaneous equations in node voltages.
8. Solve the equations to obtain node voltages.
9. Calculate branch currents if required.
10. Nodal analysis is efficient when the number of nodes is less than loops.

5. Find the voltage Vx across the resistor shown in the circuit using nodal
analysis.

Step 1: Selection of reference node

1. The bottom conductor is chosen as the reference node (ground).

2. Let the node voltages at the top nodes be V1 and V2 with respect to ground.
3. The voltage across the 30 Ω resistor is Vx = V1 .

Step 2: Apply KCL at node 1

1. Currents leaving node 1 flow through 15 Ω, 30 Ω, and 20 Ω resistors.

2. A current source of 4 A enters node 1.
3. Applying KCL at node 1:

V1 V1 V1 − V2
+ + =4
15 30 20
4. Simplifying:
1 1 1 1
 
+ + V1 − V2 = 4
15 30 20 20

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

3 1
V1 − V2 = 4
20 20

Step 3: Apply KCL at node 2

1. Currents leaving node 2 flow through 30 Ω and 20 Ω resistors.

2. A current source of 6 A leaves node 2.
3. Applying KCL at node 2:

V2 V2 − V1
+ =6
30 20
4. Simplifying:
1 1 1
 
− V1 + + V2 = 6
20 30 20

1 5
− V1 + V2 = −6
20 60

Step 4: Solve the simultaneous equations

3V1 − V2 = 80
−3V1 + 5V2 = −360

Solving,
V2 = −70 V, V1 = 3.33 V

Step 5: Final answer

Vx = V1 = 3.33 Volts

9. Find the current through the 2 Ω resistor using mesh analysis.

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Step 1: Apply KVL in Mesh 1

1. Traversing Mesh 1 clockwise:

1.33I1 + 15I1 + 16(I1 − I2 ) + 2(I1 − I2 ) = 0

2. Simplifying:
(1.33 + 15 + 16 + 2)I1 − (16 + 2)I2 = 0

34.33I1 − 18I2 = 0 (1)

Step 2: Apply KVL in Mesh 2

1. Traversing Mesh 2 clockwise:

10I2 + 4I2 + 2(I2 − I1 ) + 16(I2 − I1 ) = 12

2. Simplifying:
(10 + 4 + 2 + 16)I2 − (2 + 16)I1 = 12

32I2 − 18I1 = 12 (2)

Step 3: Solve equations (1) and (2)

34.33I1 − 18I2 = 0
32I2 − 18I1 = 12

Solving,
I2 = 0.532 A, I1 = 0.279 A

Step 4: Current through the 2 Ω resistor

I2Ω = I2 − I1

Final Answer:

I2Ω = 0.253 A

7. Find the current through the 20 Ω resistor using Superposition Theorem.

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Step 1: Effect of 50 V source acting alone

1. Applying KCL at node V :

V − 50 V V
+ + =0
15 30 20
2. Simplifying:
V = 22.22 V

3. Current through 20 Ω due to 50 V source:

(1) 22.22
I20 = = 1.11 A
20
Step 2: Effect of 100 V source acting alone
1. Applying KCL at node V :

V V − 100 V
+ + =0
15 30 20
2. Simplifying:
V = 22.22 V

3. Current through 20 Ω due to 100 V source:

(2) 22.22
I20 = = 1.11 A
20
Step 3: Total current through 20 Ω resistor
1. Both current components flow downward through the 20 Ω resistor.
2. Total current is the algebraic sum of individual currents.

(1) (2)
I20 = I20 + I20 = 1.11 + 1.11

Final Answer:

I20 = 2.22 A (downward)

15. Using Thevenin’s Theorem, determine the current i in the 15 Ω resistor.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Step 1: Determine Thevenin voltage Vth

1. With the 15 Ω resistor removed, the 8 Ω resistor carries no current.
2. Therefore, the voltage at terminal a is equal to the voltage at the junction
of 5 Ω and 6 Ω resistors.
3. The 5 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are in series across the 15 V source.
4. Circuit current:
15 15
I= = = 1.364 A
5+6 11
5. Voltage across the 6 Ω resistor:

Vth = I × 6 = 1.364 × 6 = 8.18 V

Step 2: Determine Thevenin resistance Rth

1. Deactivate the independent voltage source by replacing it with a short
circuit.
2. The 5 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are now in parallel.
3. Their equivalent resistance is:

5×6 30
R56 = = = 2.73 Ω
5+6 11

4. This resistance is in series with the 8 Ω resistor.

5. Therefore,
Rth = 8 + 2.73 = 10.73 Ω

Step 3: Reconnect the load and calculate current

1. Reconnecting the 15 Ω resistor to the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
2. Total resistance:

RT = Rth + 15 = 10.73 + 15 = 25.73 Ω

3. Load current:
Vth 8.18
i= =
RT 25.73
Final Answer:

i = 0.318 A

14. Apply Norton’s Theorem to calculate the current i flowing through the
10 Ω resistor.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Step 1: Determine Norton current IN

1. To find the Norton current, the load terminals are short-circuited.
2. Hence, 5 Ω and 15 Ω resistors are in parallel.
3. Their equivalent resistance is:

5 × 15 75
Rp = = = 3.75 Ω
5 + 15 20

4. This parallel combination is in series with the left 5 Ω resistor.

RT = 5 + 3.75 = 8.75 Ω

5. Source current:
10
I= = 1.143 A
8.75
6. Using current division, Norton current through the short circuit is:

15 15
IN = I × = 1.143 ×
5 + 15 20

IN = 0.857 A

Step 2: Determine Norton resistance RN

1. Deactivate the independent voltage source by replacing it with a short
circuit.
2. Hence, 5 Ω and 15 Ω resistors are in parallel:

5 × 15
Rp = = 3.75 Ω
5 + 15

3. This resistance is in series with the right 5 Ω resistor.

4. Therefore, Norton resistance is:

RN = 5 + 3.75 = 8.75 Ω

Step 3: Reconnect the load and calculate current

1. The Norton equivalent circuit consists of a current source IN in parallel
with resistance RN . Reconnecting the 10 Ω load resistor.
2. Using current division, current through the 10 Ω resistor is:

RN
i = IN ×
RN + 10

8.75
i = 0.857 ×
18.75
Final Answer:

i = 0.40 A

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

18. With the assistance of nodal analysis, determine v1 − v2 in the circuit

shown.

Step 1: Selection of reference node

The bottom conductor is taken as the reference (ground).
Step 2: Apply KCL at node v1
1. Applying KCL:
v1
+ (v1 − v2 ) = 2
9
2. Simplifying:
10
v1 − v 2 = 2 (1)
9
Step 3: Apply KCL at node v2
1. Applying KCL:
v2
+ (v2 − v1 ) = 15
2
2. Simplifying:
3
−v1 + v2 = 15 (2)
2
Step 4: Solve equations (1) and (2)

v1 = 27 V, v2 = 28 V

Final Answer:
v1 − v2 = −1 V

7. Use mesh analysis to determine the two mesh currents i1 and i2 .

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Step 1: Mesh current assignment

1. Let i1 be the clockwise mesh current in the left loop.

2. Let i2 be the clockwise mesh current in the right loop.

Step 2: Apply KVL in Mesh 1

1. Traversing clockwise:

9i1 + (i1 − i2 ) − 11 − 15 = 0

2. Simplifying:
10i1 − i2 = 26 (1)

Step 3: Apply KVL in Mesh 2

1. Traversing clockwise:

9i2 + (i2 − i1 ) + 11 − 21 = 0

2. Simplifying:
−i1 + 10i2 = 10 (2)

Step 4: Solve equations (1) and (2)

i1 = −2.727, i2 = −1.27

Final Answer:
i1 = −2.727 A, i2 = −1.27 A

7. Using superposition theorem, determine the current through the 10 Ω

resistor.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Let the voltage at the top of the 10 Ω resistor be V . Current through

V
the resistor is I10 = .
10
Case 1: 20 V source acting alone
1. Replace the 10 V source by a short circuit.
2. Applying KCL at node V :

V − 20 V V
+ + =0
5 4 10
3. Solving:
(1)
V = 7.27 V ⇒ I10 = 0.727 A

Case 2: 10 V source acting alone

1. Replace the 20 V source by a short circuit.
2. Applying KCL:
V V − 10 V
+ + =0
5 4 10
3. Solving:
(2)
V = 4.55 V ⇒ I10 = 0.455 A

Step 3: Applying Superposition theorem

(1) (2)
I10 = I10 + I10 = 0.727 + 0.455

Final Answer:
I10 ≈ 1.18 A (downward)

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UNIT – 2 AC Circuits

Part A – Two Mark Questions

1. Define RMS value and average value of an alternating quantity.

1. RMS value is the effective value producing the same heating effect as DC.
2. Average value is the mean of instantaneous values over one half cycle.
Xm
3. For a sinusoidal waveform, Xrms = √ .
2
2Xm
4. Average value of a sine wave is Xavg = .
π

2. Mention the condition for resonance in a series RLC circuit. Calculate

the resonant frequency if L = 10 mH and C = 47 µF.

1. Resonance occurs when inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance.

2. Condition for resonance is XL = XC .
1
3. Resonant frequency is given by fr = √ .
2π LC
4. Substituting values,

1
fr = √ = 232 Hz
2π 10 × 10−3 × 47 × 10−6

3. Define bandwidth. Find the bandwidth of a series RLC circuit with

R = 1 kΩ, L = 15 mH, C = 23 µF.

1. Bandwidth is the difference between upper and lower half-power frequen-

cies.
2. It indicates the frequency range of effective operation.
R
3. For a series RLC circuit, BW = .
2πL
4. Substituting values,

1000
BW = = 10.6 kHz
2π × 15 × 10−3

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

4. Define peak value of a sinusoidal waveform.

1. Peak value is the maximum value attained by an AC waveform.

2. It is also called the maximum or amplitude value.
3. It is denoted by Vm or Im .
4. Peak value determines insulation and voltage rating.

5. Define reactive power and apparent power.

1. Reactive power is the power alternately stored and released by inductors

and capacitors.
2. It is given by Q = V I sin ϕ and measured in VAR.
3. Apparent power is the product of RMS voltage and RMS current.
4. It is given by S = V I and measured in VA.

6. If v(t) = 141.4 sin 377t volts, find its peak value.

1. The given equation is of the form v(t) = Vm sin ωt.

2. Comparing, peak value Vm = 141.4 V.
3. Peak value is the maximum voltage of the waveform.
4. Therefore, Vm = 141.4 V.

7. Define power factor.

1. Power factor is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current.
2. It is given by cos ϕ.
3. It indicates the effectiveness of power utilization.
4. Its value lies between 0 and 1.

8. Write the relation between line voltage and phase voltage for star and
delta connections.
√
1. In star connection, VL = 3 Vph ; IL = Iph .
√
2. In delta connection, IL = 3 Iph ;VL = Vph .
3. These relations are valid for balanced three-phase systems.
4. Line and phase voltages differ due to connection type.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Part B – Five Mark Questions

1. Analyze the behaviour of a series R–L circuit when connected across a
single-phase AC supply.

Circuit description
1. A series R–L circuit consists of a resistor R and an inductor L connected in
series across a single-phase AC supply.
2. When an AC voltage is applied, both resistance and inductance oppose the flow
of current.

Derivation of impedance
3. Resistance offers opposition R to current, independent of frequency.
4. Inductor offers inductive reactance given by

XL = 2πf L

5. Since resistance and inductive reactance act at right angles in phasor form, the
impedance of the circuit is q
Z = R2 + XL2

Current in the circuit

6. The circuit current is given by Ohm’s law for AC circuits as

V
I=
Z
7. As frequency increases, inductive reactance increases, resulting in a decrease in
current.
Phase angle
8. In a series R–L circuit, current lags the applied voltage.
9. The phase angle ϕ between voltage and current is given by

XL
tan ϕ =
R
Power and power factor

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

10. The power factor of the circuit is

R
cos ϕ =
Z
11. The average power consumed by the circuit is

P = V I cos ϕ

12. The resistor dissipates power, while the inductor stores and releases energy.

2. Analyze the behaviour of a series R–C circuit when connected across a

single-phase AC supply.

Circuit description
1. A series R–C circuit consists of a resistor R and a capacitor C connected in
series across a single-phase AC supply.
2. The capacitor opposes change in voltage, while the resistor limits current.

Derivation of impedance
3. Capacitive reactance is given by

1
XC =
2πf C

4. Resistance and capacitive reactance act at right angles in phasor form.

5. Therefore, the impedance of a series R–C circuit is
q
Z= R2 + XC2

Current in the circuit

6. The circuit current is
V
I=
Z
7. As frequency increases, capacitive reactance decreases, resulting in an increase
in current.
Phase angle
8. In a series R–C circuit, current leads the applied voltage.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

9. The phase angle is given by

XC
tan ϕ =
R
Power and power factor
10. The power factor of the circuit is

R
cos ϕ =
Z
11. The power factor is leading in nature.
12. Only the resistor consumes real power, while the capacitor stores energy.

3. Explain the following terms: (i) Peak value (ii) Average value (iii) RMS
value (iv) Peak-to-peak value (v) Form factor.

(i) Peak value

1. Peak value is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity.
2. It is denoted by Vm or Im .
3. It determines insulation and voltage ratings.
(ii) Average value
1. Average value is the mean of instantaneous values over one half cycle.
2Xm
2. For a sinusoidal waveform, Xavg = .
π
3. The average value over a full cycle is zero.
(iii) RMS value
1. RMS value is the effective value of an alternating quantity.
2. It produces the same heating effect as DC.
Xm
3. For a sine wave, Xrms = √ .
2
(iv) Peak-to-peak value
1. Peak-to-peak value is the difference between positive and negative peaks.
2. It is equal to 2Xm .
3. It is useful in signal analysis.
(v) Form factor
1. Form factor is the ratio of RMS value to average value.
2. For a sine wave, it is equal to 1.11.
3. It indicates the shape of the waveform.

4. Find the average and RMS value of a sinusoidal wave.

Given sinusoidal voltage:

v(t) = Vm sin ωt

where Vm is the maximum (peak) value of the voltage.

—
Derivation of Average Value of Sinusoidal Voltage

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

The average value of a sinusoidal voltage is defined as the mean of instantaneous

values over one half cycle. Average value over a full cycle is zero due to symmetry of
the waveform. Let θ = ωt. The average value over half cycle is:

1Zπ
Vavg = Vm sin θ dθ
π 0
Integrating,
Vm
Vavg = [− cos θ]π0
π
Substituting limits,
Vm
Vavg = [(− cos π) − (− cos 0)]
π
Since cos π = −1 and cos 0 = 1,

Vm
Vavg = (1 + 1)
π
Therefore,
2Vm
Vavg =
π
Derivation of RMS Value of Sinusoidal Voltage
RMS value is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of instantaneous
values over one cycle. For a sinusoidal voltage:
s
1Zπ
Vrms = (Vm sin θ)2 dθ
π 0

Simplifying, s
Vm2 Z π 2
Vrms = sin θ dθ
π 0
Using the identity sin2 θ = 1−cos 2θ
2
,
Z π
π
sin2 θ dθ =
0 2
Substituting, s
Vm2 π
Vrms = ·
π 2
Therefore,
Vm
Vrms = √
2

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5. Find the average and RMS value of a half-wave rectified sinusoidal out-
put.

Given half-wave rectified voltage:


Vm sin ωt,

0 ≤ ωt ≤ π
v(t) =
0,

π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

where Vm is the maximum (peak) value of the sinusoidal voltage.

—
Derivation of Average Value of Half-Wave Rectified Voltage
Let θ = ωt. The average value over one cycle is:

1 Zπ
Vavg = Vm sin θ dθ
2π 0
Integrating,
Vm
Vavg = [− cos θ]π0
2π
Substituting limits,
Vm
Vavg = [(− cos π) − (− cos 0)]
2π

Vm
Vavg = (1 + 1)
2π
Therefore,
Vm
Vavg =
π
Derivation of RMS Value of Half-Wave Rectified Voltage
For a half-wave rectified waveform:
s
1 Zπ
Vrms = (Vm sin θ)2 dθ
2π 0

Simplifying, s
Vm2 Z π 2
Vrms = sin θ dθ
2π 0
Using the identity sin2 θ = 1−cos 2θ
2
,
Z π
π
sin2 θ dθ =
0 2
Substituting, s
Vm2 π
Vrms = ·
2π 2
Therefore,
Vm
Vrms =
2

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6. A 230 V, 50 Hz supply is applied to a series RL circuit with R = 10 Ω,

L = 0.05 H. Find impedance, current, voltage drops and power factor.

Given:

V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 10 Ω, L = 0.05 H

—
Step 1: Calculate inductive reactance

XL = 2πf L

XL = 2π × 50 × 0.05

XL = 15.71 Ω

—
Step 2: Calculate impedance of the circuit
q
Z= R2 + XL2

q
Z= (10)2 + (15.71)2

√
Z= 100 + 246.7

√
Z= 346.7

Z = 18.6 Ω

—
Step 3: Calculate circuit current

V
I=
Z

230
I=
18.6

I = 12.37 A

—
Step 4: Calculate voltage drop across resistance

VR = IR

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

VR = 12.37 × 10

VR = 123.7 V

—
Step 5: Calculate voltage drop across inductance

VL = IXL

VL = 12.37 × 15.71

VL = 194.4 V

—
Step 6: Calculate power factor

R
cos ϕ =
Z

10
cos ϕ =
18.6

cos ϕ = 0.537

Since the circuit is inductive, the power factor is lagging.

cos ϕ = 0.537 (lagging)

7. A 230 V, 50 Hz supply is applied to a series RL circuit with R = 20 Ω,

L = 0.03 H. Find impedance, current, voltage drops and power factor.

Given:

V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz

R = 20 Ω, L = 0.03 H

—
Step 1: Calculate inductive reactance

XL = 2πf L

XL = 2π × 50 × 0.03

XL = 9.42 Ω

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

—
Step 2: Calculate impedance of the circuit
q
Z= R2 + XL2

q
Z= (20)2 + (9.42)2

√
Z= 400 + 88.75

√
Z= 488.75

Z = 22.1 Ω

—
Step 3: Calculate circuit current

V
I=
Z

230
I=
22.1

I = 10.41 A

—
Step 4: Calculate voltage drop across resistance

VR = IR

VR = 10.41 × 20

VR = 208.2 V

—
Step 5: Calculate voltage drop across inductance

VL = IXL

VL = 10.41 × 9.42

VL = 98.1 V

—
Step 6: Calculate power factor

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

R
cos ϕ =
Z

20
cos ϕ =
22.1

cos ϕ = 0.905

Since the circuit contains inductance, the power factor is lagging.

cos ϕ = 0.905 (lagging)

8. A 200 V, 50 Hz supply is applied to a series RLC circuit with R = 20 Ω,

L = 0.05 H, C = 15 µF. Find impedance, current and voltages.

Given:

V = 200 V, f = 50 Hz

R = 20 Ω, L = 0.05 H, C = 15 µF

—
Step 1: Calculate inductive reactance

XL = 2πf L

XL = 2π × 50 × 0.05

XL = 15.71 Ω

—
Step 2: Calculate capacitive reactance

1
XC =
2πf C

1
XC =
2π × 50 × 15 × 10−6

XC = 212.2 Ω

—
Step 3: Calculate net reactance

X = XL − XC

X = 15.71 − 212.2

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

X = −196.49 Ω

(Negative sign indicates capacitive nature)

—
Step 4: Calculate impedance of the circuit
√
Z= R2 + X 2

q
Z= (20)2 + (196.49)2

√
Z= 400 + 38605.3

√
Z= 39005.3

Z = 197.5 Ω

—
Step 5: Calculate circuit current

V
I=
Z

200
I=
197.5

I = 1.01 A

—
Step 6: Voltage drop across resistance

VR = IR

VR = 1.01 × 20

VR = 20.2 V

—
Step 7: Voltage drop across inductance

VL = IXL

VL = 1.01 × 15.71

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

VL = 15.9 V

—
Step 8: Voltage drop across capacitance

VC = IXC

VC = 1.01 × 212.2

VC = 214.3 V

—
Final Results:

Z = 197.5 Ω
I = 1.01 A
VR = 20.2 V
VL = 15.9 V
VC = 214.3 V

9. Derive the voltage and current relations for a three-phase star connected
system.

Introduction
1. In a three-phase star (Y) connected system, one end of each phase is connected
to a common neutral point.
2. The other ends of the phases are connected to the three line conductors.
3. The system may be balanced or unbalanced; here a balanced system is consid-
ered.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Phase and line voltages

Let the phase voltages be Van , Vbn and Vcn , each of equal magnitude Vph . These phase
voltages are displaced from each other by 120◦ . Line voltage is defined as the voltage
between any two line conductors. Consider line voltage VAB ,

VAB = VAN − VBN

Phasor diagram explanation for voltages

In the phasor diagram, Van is taken as the reference phasor. Vbn lags Van by 120◦ , and
Vcn leads Van by 120◦ . The line voltage VAB is obtained by vector subtraction of Vbn
from VRN . Therefore, from the phasor diagram we get,

Eab = Ean cos 30◦ + Ebn cos 30◦

We know that Ean and Ebn are phase voltages.

Ean = Ebn = Ephase

Substituting,
Eab = Ephase cos 30◦ + Ephase cos 30◦

Eab = 2Ephase cos 30◦

√
3
Since cos 30 =
◦
,
2 √ !
3
Eab = 2Ephase
2
√
Eab = 3 Ephase

Here Eab is the line voltage.

√
∴ Vline = 3 Vphase

The line voltage leads the corresponding phase voltage by 30◦ .

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Phase and line currents

Phase current is the current flowing through each phase winding. Line current is the
current flowing through the line conductor. In a star connection, each line conductor
carries the same current as the phase. Therefore,

IL = Iph

Phasor diagram explanation for currents

The phase currents IR , IY , and IB are displaced by 120◦ from each other. Each phase
current is in phase with its corresponding phase voltage for a resistive load. Hence,
the current phasor diagram is identical in shape to the voltage phasor diagram.
Final relations for star-connected system
√
VL = 3 Vph
IL = Iph

Conclusion
Star connection is commonly used in power distribution systems. It allows availability
of both line and phase voltages. Neutral connection provides flexibility for single-phase
loads.

10. Derive the voltage and current relations for a three-phase delta connected
system.

Introduction
1. In a three-phase delta (∆) connected system, the three phase windings are con-
nected end-to-end to form a closed loop.
2. The three line conductors are taken from the junction points of the phase wind-
ings.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

3. A balanced three-phase delta-connected system is considered for the derivation.

—
Phase and line voltages
Let the phase voltages be VAB , VBC , and VCA , each of equal magnitude Vph . These
phase voltages are displaced from each other by 120◦ .
In a delta connection, each phase winding is directly connected between two line
conductors. Therefore, the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage.

VL = Vph

Phase and line currents

Let the phase currents be Iab , Ibc , and Ica , each of magnitude Iph . These currents are
displaced from each other by 120◦ .

Line current is defined as the current flowing through the line conductor. Consider
line current Ia at terminal A.

Ia = Iab − Ica

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Phasor diagram explanation for currents

In the phasor diagram:
• Iab is taken as the reference phasor.
• Ica lags Iab by 120◦ .
• The line current Ia is obtained by vector subtraction of Ica from Iab .
From the phasor diagram we get,

Ia = Iab cos 30◦ + Ica cos 30◦

Since the phase currents are equal in magnitude,

Iab = Ica = Iph

Substituting,
Ia = Iph cos 30◦ + Iph cos 30◦

Ia = 2Iph cos 30◦

√
3
Since cos 30◦ = ,
2 √ !
3
Ia = 2Iph
2
√
Ia = 3 Iph

Here Ia is the line current.

√
∴ IL = 3 Iph

The line current lags the corresponding phase current by 30◦ .

Phasor diagram explanation for voltages
• The phase voltages VAB , VBC , and VCA are displaced by 120◦ .
• Each phase voltage appears directly across the line terminals.
• Hence, the voltage phasor diagram for a delta connection is identical for both
line and phase voltages.
—
Final relations for delta-connected system

VL = Vph
√
IL = 3 Iph
—
Conclusion
• Delta connection is commonly used in high-power industrial loads.
• It provides higher line current compared to star connection.
• No neutral point is available in delta connection.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

11. Three identical coils each of R = 10 Ω, L = 5 mH are connected in star

across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Find impedance, phase current and line
current.

Given:

R = 10 Ω, L = 5 mH = 5 × 10−3 H

VL = 230 V, f = 50 Hz

—
Step 1: Calculate inductive reactance of each coil

XL = 2πf L

XL = 2π × 50 × 5 × 10−3

XL = 1.57 Ω

—
Step 2: Calculate impedance of each phase
q
Z= R2 + XL2

q
Z= (10)2 + (1.57)2

√
Z= 100 + 2.46

√
Z= 102.46

Z = 10.12 Ω

—
Step 3: Calculate phase voltage
For a star-connected system:
VL
Vph = √
3
230
Vph = √
3

Vph = 132.8 V

—
Step 4: Calculate phase current

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Vph
Iph =
Z

132.8
Iph =
10.12

Iph = 13.1 A

—
Step 5: Calculate line current
In a star-connected system:
IL = Iph

IL = 13.1 A

33
UNIT – 3 Transformers

Part A – Two Mark Questions

1. What is the turns ratio of a transformer?

1. Turns ratio is the ratio of number of turns in the primary winding to that
in the secondary winding.
Np
2. It is given by k = .
Ns
3. Turns ratio determines the voltage transformation.

2. What is voltage regulation of a transformer?

1. Voltage regulation is the change in secondary terminal voltage from no-

load to full-load.
2. It is expressed as a percentage of full-load voltage.
3. It indicates the voltage drop under load.

3. Define the efficiency of a transformer.

1. Efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of output power to input power.

2. It is expressed as a percentage.
3. Efficiency indicates how effectively power is transferred.

4. What is hysteresis loss?

1. Hysteresis loss occurs due to repeated magnetization of the transformer

core.
2. It depends on frequency and maximum flux density.
3. It is reduced by using silicon steel core.

5. What is eddy current loss?

1. Eddy current loss is caused by circulating currents induced in the core.

2. It results in heating of the core.
3. It is reduced by laminating the core.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

6. If the turns ratio of a single-phase transformer is 2 : 1 and the primary

voltage is 115 V, find the secondary voltage.

Np Vp
Turns ratio = = .
Ns Vs
Given Vp = 115 V and turns ratio = 2 : 1.
115
Therefore, Vs = = 57.5 V.
2

7. Calculate the efficiency of a 5 kVA transformer with core losses of 250 W

and full-load copper loss of 100 W.

Full-load output power at unity power factor:

Pout = 5 × 1000 = 5000 W

Total losses at full load:

Ploss = 250 + 100 = 350 W

Efficiency:
Pout 5000
η= = = 0.9346
Pout + Ploss 5350
Therefore, transformer efficiency:

η = 93.46%

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Part B – Five Mark Questions

1. Explain the working of a transformer with the help of a suitable figure.

1. A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy from

one circuit to another without changing the frequency.
2. It works on the principle of mutual induction.

3. When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, an alternating current

flows through it.
4. This current produces an alternating magnetic flux in the laminated iron core.
5. The magnetic flux links both the primary and secondary windings.
6. According to Faraday’s law, an EMF is induced in the secondary winding due
to the changing flux.
7. If the secondary circuit is closed, a current flows and power is delivered to the
load.
8. The magnitude of induced EMF depends on the number of turns in the winding.
9. Energy transfer takes place through the magnetic field, not through electrical
connection.
10. Transformer operation requires alternating current; it does not work on DC.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

2. Differentiate between core type and shell type transformer.

Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

Windings surround the core. Core surrounds the windings.
Uses two limbs. Uses three limbs.
Windings are placed on both Windings are placed on the cen-
limbs. tral limb.
Higher leakage flux. Lower leakage flux.
Mechanical strength is compara- Provides better mechanical
tively less. strength.
Construction is simpler. Construction is relatively com-
plex.
Lower short-circuit withstand ca- Better short-circuit withstand ca-
pability. pability.
Cooling is easier. Cooling is comparatively difficult.
Commonly used for high-voltage, Commonly used for low-voltage,
low-current applications. high-current applications.
Widely used in power transmis- Widely used in industrial and
sion systems. electronic applications.

3. Explain briefly about an ideal transformer.

1. An ideal transformer is a hypothetical transformer which does not exist in prac-

tice.
2. The winding resistance is assumed to be zero.
3. There is no leakage flux; all flux links both windings.
4. Core losses such as hysteresis and eddy current losses are absent.
5. Permeability of the core is infinite.
6. Input power is equal to output power.
7. Efficiency of an ideal transformer is 100%.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

4. Explain the difference between the ideal and practical transformer.

Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer

Has no losses. Has various losses.
Winding resistance is zero. Winding resistance is finite.
No leakage flux exists. Leakage flux exists.
No leakage reactance. Has leakage reactance.
Core losses are absent. Hysteresis and eddy current
losses are present.
Efficiency is 100%. Efficiency is less than 100%.
Voltage regulation is zero. Voltage regulation is non-zero.
Flux linkage is perfect. Flux linkage is imperfect.
Output voltage is exactly propor- Output voltage deviates due to
tional to turns ratio. losses.
Used only for theoretical analysis. Used in practical power applica-
tions.

5. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit of a transformer.

1. The equivalent circuit represents the electrical behavior of a transformer.

2. Winding resistance represents copper loss.

3. Leakage reactance represents leakage flux.
4. Core loss resistance represents hysteresis and eddy current losses.
5. Magnetizing reactance represents the magnetizing current.
6. Primary resistance and reactance are referred to the primary side.
7. Secondary parameters can be referred to the primary side using turns ratio.
8. Shunt branch represents core behavior.
9. Series branch represents winding effects.
10. Equivalent circuit simplifies performance analysis.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

6. Explain the working of a practical transformer for a resistive load.

When a resistive load is connected across the secondary of a practical transformer, the
transformer operates under load conditions and its behavior can be explained with
the help of the phasor diagram.
Working and phasor diagram explanation
1. Consider a practical transformer supplying a purely resistive load at the sec-
ondary terminals. In a resistive load, the secondary current I2 is in phase with
the secondary terminal voltage V2 .

2. The secondary current I2 flowing through the secondary winding produces a

resistive voltage drop I2 R2 which is in phase with I2 , and a reactive voltage
drop I2 X2 which leads I2 R2 by 90◦ .
3. Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) in the secondary circuit, the induced
secondary EMF is given by

E2 = V2 + I2 R2 + I2 X2

4. The magnetic flux ϕ in the core is responsible for inducing EMFs in both primary
and secondary windings. The flux ϕ leads the induced EMF E2 by 90◦ .
5. The same flux ϕ also induces EMF E1 in the primary winding. The magnitude
of E1 depends on the number of turns in the primary winding. If the primary
has fewer turns than the secondary, E1 will be smaller than E2 .
6. The magnetic flux ϕ is produced by the magnetising current Iµ . Hence, the
magnetising current Iµ is in phase with the flux ϕ.
7. According to Lenz’s law, the induced EMF in the primary opposes the applied
voltage. Therefore, −E1 is drawn equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

to E1 .
8. The current flowing through the core loss resistance R0 is the core loss current
Ic , which is in phase with −E1 . The no-load current I0 is the phasor sum of Iµ
and Ic .
9. The load current reflected to the primary is denoted as I2′ , which is in anti-phase
with I2 . The primary current I1 is the phasor sum of I0 and I2′ .
10. The primary current I1 causes voltage drops I1 R1 (in phase with I1 ) and I1 X1
(in quadrature with I1 R1 ). Applying KVL to the primary circuit,

V1 = −E1 + I1 R1 + I1 X1

Thus, the practical transformer supplies power to the resistive load with voltage drops
occurring in both windings, and the complete operation can be clearly understood
using the phasor diagram.

7. Explain in detail the losses in a transformer

1. Losses in a transformer are the power losses that occur during energy transfer
from primary to secondary and they reduce the efficiency of the transformer.
2. Transformer losses are broadly classified into core (iron) losses and copper
losses based on the part of the transformer in which they occur.
3. Core losses occur in the transformer core due to alternating magnetic flux and
are present whenever the transformer is energized, irrespective of load.
4. Hysteresis loss occurs due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization of
the core material during each AC cycle and depends on frequency, maximum
flux density, and core material.
5. Eddy current loss occurs due to circulating currents induced in the core by the
alternating flux, causing heating of the core. This loss is reduced by laminating
the core.
6. Core losses are also known as constant losses because they depend mainly on
supply voltage and frequency and remain nearly constant with load.
7. Copper losses occur in the primary and secondary windings due to the resis-
tance of the conductors and are given by I 2 R losses.
8. Copper losses vary with the square of load current and hence increase as the
load on the transformer increases.
9. Stray losses occur due to leakage flux inducing eddy currents in transformer
tank, bolts, and other metallic parts.
10. Dielectric losses occur in the insulating materials of the transformer due to
the alternating electric field and are usually small.
11. All these losses result in heating of the transformer, reduce efficiency, and require
proper cooling arrangements.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

8. Derive the expression for the maximum efficiency of a transformer.

Definition of efficiency
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power.

Output Power
η=
Input Power
—
Expression for efficiency
For a transformer supplying a load at a power factor cos θ2 , the output power is

Pout = V2 I2 cos θ2

The input power is the sum of output power and losses. Transformer losses consist of:
• Core (iron) loss Pc (constant loss)
• Copper loss I22 R2 (variable loss)
Hence, the efficiency is given by

V2 I2 cos θ2
η=
V2 I2 cos θ2 + Pc + I22 R2
—
Simplification of efficiency expression
Dividing both numerator and denominator by I2 , we get

V2 cos θ2
η=
Pc
V2 cos θ2 + + I2 R2
I2

For a given transformer operating at a constant terminal voltage V2 and fixed power
factor, the efficiency depends only on the load current I2 .
—
Condition for maximum efficiency
For maximum efficiency, the denominator of the above expression must be minimum
with respect to I2 .
Differentiating the denominator with respect to I2 and equating to zero:

d Pc
 
V2 cos θ2 + + I2 R2 = 0
dI2 I2
Pc
0 − 2 + R2 = 0
I2

Rearranging,
Pc = I22 R2

Therefore, maximum efficiency in a transformer occurs when the load power factor is
unity (i.e., resistive load) and load current is such that copper loss equals core loss.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

9. A 100 kVA transformer has half full load copper loss of 800 W and iron
loss of 900 W. Determine its efficiency at half load at 0.8 power factor
lagging.

Given:
Rated apparent power of the transformer,

S = 100 kVA

Load condition = Half load

Power factor,
cos ϕ = 0.8 (lagging)

Iron (core) loss,

Pi = 900 W

Copper loss at half load,

Pc, half = 800 W

—
Step 1: Calculate output power at half load
The output power of a transformer is given by:

Pout = S × load fraction × cos ϕ

At half load,
Pout = 100 × 0.5 × 0.8

Pout = 40 kW = 40,000 W

—
Step 2: Calculate total losses at half load
Total losses consist of iron loss and copper loss.

Ploss = Pi + Pc, half

Ploss = 900 + 800

Ploss = 1700 W

—
Step 3: Calculate input power

Pin = Pout + Ploss

Pin = 40,000 + 1700

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Pin = 41,700 W

—
Step 4: Calculate efficiency of the transformer
Efficiency is defined as:
Pout
η=
Pin

40,000
η=
41,700

η = 0.959

—
Final Answer:

η = 95.9%

10. In a 25 kVA, 2000/220 V transformer, the iron and copper losses are 350
W and 400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor
for (a) full load and (b) half load.

Given:
Rated capacity of the transformer,

S = 25 kVA

Iron loss,
Pi = 350 W

Full-load copper loss,

Pc,FL = 400 W

Power factor,
cos ϕ = 1 (unity)

(a) Efficiency at Full Load

The output power at full load and unity power factor is:

Pout, FL = 25 × 1000 = 25,000 W

The total losses at full load are:

Ploss, FL = Pi + Pc,FL = 350 + 400 = 750 W

The input power at full load is:

Pin, FL = Pout, FL + Ploss, FL = 25,000 + 750 = 25,750 W

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Hence, the efficiency at full load is:

Pout, FL 25,000
ηFL = =
Pin, FL 25,750

ηFL = 0.971 ⇒ ηFL = 97.1%

(b) Efficiency at Half Load

At half load, the output power is:

Pout, HL = 25 × 0.5 × 1000 = 12,500 W

Copper loss varies as the square of load current. Therefore, copper loss at half load
is:
Pc,HL = (0.5)2 × 400 = 100 W

The total losses at half load are:

Ploss, HL = Pi + Pc,HL = 350 + 100 = 450 W

The input power at half load is:

Pin, HL = 12,500 + 450 = 12,950 W

Hence, the efficiency at half load is:

Pout, HL 12,500
ηHL = =
Pin, HL 12,950

ηHL = 0.965 ⇒ ηHL = 96.5%

11. What is an auto transformer? Give its advantages over a two-winding

transformer.

An auto transformer is a type of transformer in which a single continuous winding

is used for both the primary and secondary circuits. A portion of the winding is
common to both sides, and the required output voltage is obtained by taking a tap
from the winding. Like a conventional transformer, an auto transformer operates on
the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Since part of the winding is shared by both the primary and secondary, the amount
of copper required in an auto transformer is considerably less than that in a
two-winding transformer. This reduction in copper leads to lower I 2 R losses,
which directly improves the efficiency of the transformer.

Due to the reduced copper losses and smaller winding resistance, auto transformers

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

exhibit higher efficiency compared to two-winding transformers of the same rating.

The voltage regulation of an auto transformer is also better because the impedance
drop is smaller, resulting in less variation of output voltage with load.

Another important advantage of an auto transformer is its reduced size and

weight. The common winding arrangement reduces the overall volume of copper
and core material, making the transformer more compact and lighter. This also
results in a lower manufacturing cost, making auto transformers more economical for
applications involving small voltage ratios.

Auto transformers are widely used in voltage control and starting applica-
tions, such as in induction motor starters and voltage regulators, where a gradual
variation of voltage is required.

However, auto transformers do not provide electrical isolation between the primary
and secondary circuits, since both are electrically connected through the common
winding. Due to the absence of isolation, auto transformers are not suitable for
applications where safety and isolation are essential.

12. Explain the concept of copper saving in an auto transformer and derive
an expression for it.

An autotransformer is a transformer in which a part of the winding is common to

both the primary and secondary circuits. Due to this common winding, the amount
of copper required in an autotransformer is less than that required in a conventional
two-winding transformer of the same rating. This reduction in copper results in copper
saving, which is one of the major advantages of an autotransformer.
The weight of copper required in a transformer winding depends upon the volume
of copper used. The volume, and hence the weight of copper, is proportional to the
product of the number of turns and the current carried by the winding, i.e.,

Weight of copper ∝ N I

Copper required in an autotransformer

Let,
N1 = number of turns in primary

N2 = number of turns in secondary

I1 = primary current, I2 = secondary current

In an autotransformer, the section corresponding to (N1 −N2 ) carries current I1 , while

the common section of N2 turns carries a current equal to (I2 − I1 ).
Therefore, the total weight of copper in an autotransformer is proportional to

Wa ∝ (N1 − N2 )I1 + N2 (I2 − I1 )

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Simplifying,

Wa ∝ N1 I1 − N2 I1 + N2 I2 − N2 I1
∝ N1 I1 + N2 I2 − 2N2 I1 (3.1)

For an ideal transformer,

N1 I1 = N2 I2

Substituting,

Wa ∝ 2N1 I1 − 2N2 I1
∝ 2I1 (N1 − N2 ) (3.2)

—
Copper required in a two-winding transformer
In a two-winding transformer, the primary winding of N1 turns carries current I1 and
the secondary winding of N2 turns carries current I2 .
Hence, the total weight of copper required is proportional to

W2w ∝ N1 I1 + N2 I2

Using N1 I1 = N2 I2 ,
W2w ∝ 2N1 I1

—
Expression for copper saving
Let k be the transformation ratio, defined as

N2
k=
N1

The ratio of copper required in an autotransformer to that in a two-winding trans-

former is
Wa 2I1 (N1 − N2 )
=
W2w 2N1 I1
N1 − N2
=
N1
N2
=1−
N1
=1−k (3.3)

Hence,
Wa = (1 − k) W2w

46
UNIT – 4 Electrical Machines

Part A – Two Mark Questions

1. What are the different types of DC generators?

DC generators are classified based on the method of field excitation as:

1. Separately excited DC generator.
2. Self-excited DC generators: shunt, series, and compound generators.

2. What are the different types of DC motors?

DC motors are classified according to field connection as:

1. DC shunt motor.
2. DC series motor.
3. DC compound motor.

3. Draw the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load.

1. On no load, only the no-load current flows in the primary.

2. The induced EMF lags the flux by 90◦ .
3. (A neat phasor diagram showing V1 , E1 , ϕ, and I0 is drawn.)

4. Define slip or percentage slip of an induction motor.

1. Slip is the difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed.

Ns − Nr
2. It is given by s = .
Ns
3. Percentage slip = s × 100.

5. Induction motor can never run at synchronous speed. Justify.

1. At synchronous speed, slip becomes zero.

2. Rotor current becomes zero, hence torque is zero.
3. Therefore, an induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

6. What are the two types of rotor constructions in a synchronous genera-

tor?

1. Salient pole rotor.

2. Non-salient (cylindrical) rotor.

7. A DC shunt motor operates from 220 V supply. The armature resistance

is 0.3 Ω. Determine the back EMF if the armature current is 50 A.

Back EMF is given by Eb = V − Ia Ra .

Eb = 220 − (50 × 0.3) = 220 − 15 = 205 V.
Therefore, back EMF is 205 V.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Part B – Five Mark Questions

1. Explain the construction of a DC generator with the help of a neat figure.

A DC generator consists of various parts which are designed to convert mechanical

energy into electrical energy efficiently.
1. The yoke forms the outer frame of the machine and provides mechanical support
and protection.
2. The field poles are mounted on the yoke and are used to produce the magnetic
field.
3. Each pole consists of a pole core and pole shoe, which spreads the flux uni-
formly.
4. The field windings are wound on the pole cores and carry DC current to
produce flux.
5. The armature core is a laminated cylindrical core placed on the shaft.
6. Laminations reduce eddy current losses in the armature core.
7. The armature winding is placed in slots on the armature core.
8. The commutator converts internally generated AC into DC at the terminals.
9. Brushes collect current from the commutator and supply it to the external
circuit.

10. A neat labelled diagram of the DC generator is drawn to show these parts.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

2. Derive the EMF equation of a DC generator.

Let:
ϕ = flux per pole (Wb)

Z = total number of armature conductors

P = number of poles

A = number of parallel paths

N = speed of armature in r.p.m.

Eg = generated EMF

Flux cut by one conductor

In one complete revolution of the armature, a conductor cuts the flux of all poles.
Hence, flux cut by one conductor per revolution is

dϕ = P ϕ webers

Time taken for one revolution

The armature rotates at N r.p.m. Therefore, time taken for one revolution is

60
dt = seconds
N
EMF induced in one conductor
The average EMF induced in one conductor is given by

dϕ
e=
dt
Substituting the above values,

Pϕ P ϕN
e = 60 = volts
60
N
Total generated EMF
Z
The number of conductors connected in series per parallel path is .
A
Hence, the generated EMF of the DC generator is

Eg = (EMF per conductor) × (conductors in series per path)

P ϕN Z
Eg = × (4.1)
60 A

ϕP N Z
Eg =
60A
Special cases

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

A=P for lap winding

A = 2 for wave winding

Simplified form
For a given machine, P , Z, and A are constants. Hence, the EMF equation can be
written as
Eg = KϕN

where,
PZ
K=
60A
is called the armature constant.
Therefore,
Eg ∝ ϕN

3. Give the classification of DC generators with supporting circuit diagrams.

DC generators are classified based on the method of excitation.

1. Separately excited DC generator – field winding is energized from an ex-
ternal source.
2. Self-excited DC generators – field winding is energized from the generator
itself.
3. Self-excited generators are classified into shunt, series, and compound genera-
tors.
4. In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the ar-
mature.
5. In a series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the arma-
ture.
6. Compound generators have both shunt and series field windings.
7. Compound generators may be long-shunt or short-shunt.
8. They may also be cumulatively or differentially compounded.
9. Circuit diagrams help in understanding the connections clearly.

10. Neat circuit diagrams are drawn for each type.

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4. Derive the expression for the torque of a DC motor.

Concept of Torque
When a DC machine operates either as a motor or as a generator, current flows
through the armature conductors. These conductors are placed in the magnetic field
of the air gap and hence each conductor experiences a force. Since the conductors
are located at a fixed radius from the center of the rotor, the combined effect of these
forces produces a turning moment on the armature, causing it to rotate. This turning
moment is known as torque.

Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to cause rotational motion and is given
by
T = F × R sin θ N-m

For a DC motor, the force acts perpendicular to the radius of the rotor, hence θ = 90◦
and
T =F ×R

Relation between Torque and Power

If the armature rotates at a speed of N r.p.m., the angular velocity is

2πN
ω= rad/s
60
The work done in one revolution is

W = F × (2πR) joules

The power developed is the work done per unit time:

Work done
P =
Time for one revolution
F × 2πR
= 60
N 
2πN

= (F × R) (4.2)
60
Since T = F × R, the above equation becomes

P =T ×ω

Derivation of Armature Torque

Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature, called the armature torque.

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The mechanical power developed in the armature of a DC motor is given by

P = Eb Ia

where Eb is the back EMF and Ia is the armature current.

Using the relation P = Ta ω,

2πN
Eb Ia = Ta ×
60
The back EMF of a DC motor is
ϕP ZN
Eb =
60A
Substituting this in the power equation,

ϕP ZN 2πN
× Ia = Ta ×
60A 60
Simplifying,

1 PZ
Ta = ϕIa (4.3)
2π A
Numerically,
PZ
Ta = 0.159 ϕ Ia N-m
A

5. Explain the performance characteristics of a DC shunt motor.

The performance of a DC shunt motor is determined by its operating characteristics,

which indicate the suitability of the motor for various applications. The important
performance characteristics of a DC shunt motor are studied using the following three
curves:
1. Torque versus armature current (T vs Ia ) characteristic.
2. Speed versus armature current (N vs Ia ) characteristic.
3. Speed versus torque (N vs T ) characteristic.
The following basic relations are used in the analysis of these characteristics:

V − Eb Eb
Ia = , N∝ , Ta ∝ ϕIa
Ra ϕ

Since the field winding of a DC shunt motor is connected in parallel with the supply,
the shunt field current Ish remains almost constant. Hence, the flux ϕ may be assumed
constant under normal operating conditions.
—
1. Torque versus armature current characteristic (T vs Ia )
In a DC shunt motor, the field flux ϕ is approximately constant. Therefore, from the

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

torque equation,
Ta ∝ ϕIa

Since ϕ is constant,
∴ Ta ∝ Ia

Thus, the torque developed by the motor is directly proportional to the armature
current. The T versus Ia characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin,
as shown in the characteristic curve.
Since a heavy load requires a large armature current, a DC shunt motor should never
be started on heavy load, as it may draw excessive current at starting.
2. Speed versus armature current characteristic (N vs Ia )
The speed of a DC motor is given by

Eb
N∝
ϕ

Substituting Eb = V − Ia Ra ,
V − Ia Ra
N∝
ϕ
Since ϕ is constant for a shunt motor,

∴ N ∝ V − Ia Ra

As the load increases, the armature current Ia increases, resulting in a small drop in
back EMF Eb and a slight reduction in speed. In practice, the speed decreases only
by about 5–15% from no-load to full-load conditions. Hence, a DC shunt motor is
considered a nearly constant-speed motor.
The ideal characteristic is represented by a straight line, while the actual characteristic
shows a slight downward slope.
3. Speed versus torque characteristic (N vs T )
From the torque equation,
Ta ∝ Ia

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

and from the speed equation,

N ∝ V − Ia Ra

As torque increases, armature current increases, causing a slight reduction in

speed. Therefore, speed decreases linearly with increase in torque. The N versus T
characteristic is similar to the speed versus armature current characteristic.

From the above characteristics, it is concluded that a DC shunt motor develops torque
proportional to armature current and maintains nearly constant speed over a wide
range of loads. Due to these characteristics, DC shunt motors are widely used in
applications requiring constant speed, such as machine tools, fans, blowers, and cen-
trifugal pumps.

6. Explain briefly about the generation of rotating magnetic field.

The rotation of a three-phase induction motor is due to the production of a rotating

magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field is produced by the three-phase stator
windings when they are energized with a three-phase AC supply.

The stator of an induction motor consists of a three-phase distributed winding, which

may be connected in star or delta. When a three-phase AC supply is applied, three
currents IR , IY , and IB flow through the stator windings. These currents are equal in
magnitude and displaced from each other by 120◦ in time.
Each of these currents produces an alternating magnetic flux in the air gap between
the stator and the rotor. These fluxes are also sinusoidal in nature, have the same
frequency as the supply, and are displaced by 120◦ in space.
Let the fluxes produced by the three phase currents be denoted as ϕR , ϕY , and ϕB .

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

These fluxes can be expressed mathematically as:

ϕR = ϕm sin ωt = ϕm sin θ

ϕY = ϕm sin(ωt − 120◦ ) = ϕm sin(θ − 120◦ )

ϕB = ϕm sin(ωt − 240◦ ) = ϕm sin(θ − 240◦ )

The resultant or total flux in the air gap is equal to the phasor sum of these three
fluxes and is given by
ϕT = ϕR + ϕY + ϕB

Case 1: When θ = 0◦

ϕR = ϕm sin 0◦ = 0
√
3
ϕY = ϕm sin(−120◦ ) = − ϕm
2
√
3
ϕB = ϕm sin(−240 ) =
◦
ϕm
2

From the corresponding phasor diagram, the resultant flux is found to be

ϕT = 1.5 ϕm

Case 2: When θ = 60◦

√
3
ϕR = ϕm sin 60 =◦
ϕm
2
√
3
ϕY = ϕm sin(−60◦ ) = − ϕm
2
ϕB = ϕm sin(−180◦ ) = 0

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Again, from the phasor diagram, the resultant flux is

ϕT = 1.5 ϕm

Case 3: When θ = 120◦

√
3
ϕR = ϕm sin 120 =◦
ϕm
2
ϕY = ϕm sin 0◦ = 0
√
3
ϕB = ϕm sin(−120 ) = −
◦
ϕm
2

From the phasor diagram, the resultant flux is again

ϕT = 1.5 ϕm

From the above analysis, it is observed that:

• The magnitude of the resultant flux remains constant and equal to 1.5 ϕm .
• The direction of the resultant flux continuously changes with time.
• Hence, the resultant magnetic field rotates in space at a constant speed.
This rotating magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed, given by

120f
Ns =
P
where f is the supply frequency and P is the number of poles.
Thus, a three-phase supply applied to the stator winding produces a rotating magnetic
field of constant magnitude, which is the basic principle behind the operation of three-
phase induction motors.

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7. Explain the working principle of a three-phase induction motor.

The operation of a three-phase induction motor is based on the principles of electro-

magnetic induction and Lorentz force acting on a current-carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field.
When a three-phase AC supply is applied to the stator windings of an induction motor,
a rotating magnetic field (RMF) is produced in the air gap between the stator and
the rotor. This rotating magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed Ns .
Initially, the rotor is stationary. Therefore, there exists a relative motion between
the rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. Due to this relative motion, an
electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the rotor conductors according to Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of induced EMF is given by

e = Bℓv

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

where B is the flux density, ℓ is the length of the conductor, and v is the relative
velocity.
Since the rotor bars are short-circuited at the ends by end rings, the induced EMF
causes currents to flow in the rotor conductors. The direction of these induced currents
can be determined using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
The current-carrying rotor conductors are now placed in the magnetic field of the
stator. As per Lorentz force law, each conductor experiences a mechanical force. The
interaction between the stator rotating magnetic field and the rotor current produces
a force on the rotor conductors.
These forces act tangentially to the rotor surface and collectively produce a torque,
causing the rotor to start rotating in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field.
As the rotor accelerates, its speed N approaches the synchronous speed Ns but never
reaches it.
Thus, a three-phase induction motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
by the interaction of induced rotor currents with the rotating magnetic field produced
by the stator.

8. Draw the torque-slip curve of a three-phase induction motor and explain

its importance.

The torque–slip characteristic of an induction motor is the curve obtained by plot-

ting electromagnetic torque developed by the motor against slip, varying from s = 1
(standstill) to s = 0 (synchronous speed). This characteristic explains the operating
behavior of an induction motor under different loading conditions.
For a constant supply voltage, the rotor induced EMF E2 remains constant. The
electromagnetic torque of an induction motor can be expressed as

sR2
T ∝
R22 + (sX2 )2

where R2 and X2 are the rotor resistance and rotor reactance respectively.
To study the nature of the torque–slip curve, the slip range is divided into two regions.
1. Low slip region (0 < s < sm )
In the low slip region, slip s is very small. Hence, the term (sX2 )2 is negligible
compared to R22 . Therefore,

sR2
T ∝
R22
∴T ∝s (4.4)

Thus, torque is directly proportional to slip in this region. As load increases, slip
increases slightly, resulting in a proportional increase in torque. The torque–slip
characteristic in this region is a straight line. This region is known as the stable
operating region, and the motor always operates within this region under normal
conditions.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

2. High slip region (sm < s ≤ 1)

In the high slip region, slip approaches unity. Hence, R22 becomes negligible compared
to (sX2 )2 . Therefore,

sR2
T ∝
(sX2 )2
1
∴T ∝ (4.5)
s
Thus, torque is inversely proportional to slip. As slip increases further, torque de-
creases. The torque–slip characteristic in this region resembles a rectangular hyper-
bola. This region is called the unstable operating region, as the motor cannot
operate continuously in this region.
Maximum torque
The maximum torque developed by the motor is called maximum torque, breakdown
torque, or pull-out torque. It occurs at a slip s = sm . This torque is independent of
rotor resistance.
If the load torque exceeds this maximum value, the motor becomes unstable and
eventually comes to a standstill.

Importance of torque–slip characteristics

1. It explains the starting and running behavior of an induction motor.
2. It helps in identifying stable and unstable operating regions.
3. It indicates the maximum torque capability of the motor.
4. It assists in motor selection for specific load requirements.
5. It is useful for analyzing overload conditions.

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9. With the help of a neat figure, discuss the construction of a salient pole
synchronous generator.

A salient pole synchronous generator is widely used in low-speed applications such as

hydroelectric power plants. The construction of this type of alternator is designed to
accommodate a large number of poles and high torque at low rotational speeds.
The salient pole synchronous generator consists of two main parts: the stator and
the rotor.

Stator Construction
The stator forms the stationary part of the generator and carries the armature wind-
ing. It consists of a laminated silicon steel core to reduce eddy current losses. Slots
are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core to accommodate a three-phase dis-
tributed armature winding. When the rotor field rotates, EMF is induced in these
stator windings. The stator winding is usually star connected and is responsible for
delivering electrical power to the load.
Rotor Construction (Salient Pole Rotor)
The rotor of a salient pole alternator has projecting poles, known as salient poles,
mounted on a rotor yoke. Each pole consists of a laminated pole core and a pole shoe.
The pole shoe increases the area of contact with air gap, spreads the magnetic flux
uniformly, and reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path.
Field windings are wound around each pole core and are excited with direct current
supplied through slip rings and brushes. When DC excitation is applied, the rotor
poles become electromagnets producing a magnetic field.
The air gap between the stator and rotor is non-uniform due to the projecting poles.
This is a characteristic feature of salient pole machines. The rotor has a large diameter
and short axial length, making it suitable for low-speed operation.
Damper Windings
Salient pole rotors are provided with damper windings embedded in the pole shoes.
These damper windings resemble squirrel cage rotor bars and are short-circuited at
both ends. They serve two purposes: they help in damping oscillations (hunting) and
assist in starting the machine when operated as a synchronous motor.

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Cooling System
Cooling ducts are provided in both stator and rotor to dissipate heat produced due
to losses. Air or water cooling methods are commonly used depending on the rating
of the generator.
Applications and Features
Salient pole synchronous generators are used where low speed and high torque are
required. They are commonly employed in hydroelectric power stations. These ma-
chines operate at low speeds ranging from 50 to 300 rpm and have a large number of
poles.

10. What are the different rotor configurations used in alternators?

[Link]. Salient Pole Rotor Cylindrical (Non-salient) Rotor

1 Used in low-speed alternators Used in high-speed alternators
2 Large number of poles Small number of poles
3 Large diameter and short axial Small diameter and long axial length
length
4 Non-uniform air gap Uniform air gap
5 Poles project out from the ro- Smooth cylindrical rotor surface
tor surface
6 Suitable for hydroelectric Suitable for thermal and nuclear
power plants power plants
7 Operates at speeds typically Operates at speeds of 1500–3000
below 300 rpm rpm
8 Damper windings are provided Damper windings are generally not
on pole shoes required
9 Mechanical strength require- Requires very high mechanical
ment is moderate strength
10 Rotor type depends on low- Rotor type depends on high-speed
speed operation operation

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UNIT – 5 Electrical Installations

Part A – Two Mark Questions

1. Define Ampere-hour (Ah) of a battery.

1. Ampere-hour (Ah) is a measure of the charge capacity of a battery.

2. It is defined as the product of current and time for which the battery can
supply that current.
3. 1 Ah means the battery can supply 1 A current for 1 hour.

2. What is Earthing?

1. Earthing is the process of connecting the non-current carrying metal parts

of electrical equipment to the earth.
2. It provides a low-resistance path for fault current.
3. Earthing ensures safety of personnel and equipment.

3. What is the difference between primary and secondary batteries? Give

an example of each.

1. Primary batteries are non-rechargeable, while secondary batteries are

rechargeable.
2. Chemical reactions in primary batteries are irreversible; in secondary bat-
teries they are reversible.
3. Example: Dry cell (primary), Lead-acid battery (secondary).

4. What is a Fuse? What are its disadvantages?

1. A fuse is a protective device that melts and breaks the circuit when exces-
sive current flows.
2. It protects electrical circuits from overloads and short circuits.
3. Disadvantages: Fuse must be replaced after operation and cannot be
reused.

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5. What is the difference between a wire and a cable?

1. A wire is a single conductor, while a cable consists of two or more conduc-

tors.
2. Wires may be bare or insulated; cables are always insulated.
3. Cables provide better mechanical protection than wires.

6. What is the necessity of earthing?

1. Earthing protects human beings from electric shock by providing a low-

resistance path for fault current.
2. It prevents damage to electrical equipment during insulation failure.
3. Earthing stabilizes the system voltage with respect to ground.

7. What is a circuit breaker?

1. A circuit breaker is an automatic protective device that opens the circuit

under fault conditions.
2. It protects electrical systems from overloads and short circuits.
3. Circuit breakers can be reset and reused after fault clearance.

8. Expand MCB and MCCB.

1. MCB stands for Miniature Circuit Breaker.

2. MCCB stands for Moulded Case Circuit Breaker.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Part B – Five Mark Questions

1. Explain the working of MCB with the help of a neat diagram.

A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is an automatic electrical protection device used

to protect low-voltage electrical circuits from overload and short-circuit faults. Unlike
a fuse, an MCB can be reset after operation without replacement.

Construction of MCB
An MCB mainly consists of a fixed contact, a moving contact, a bimetallic strip, an
electromagnetic coil (solenoid), an arc chute, and an operating handle. A neat labelled
diagram of an MCB shows these components clearly.
Working of MCB
Under normal operating conditions, current flows through the contacts of the MCB
without causing any interruption. The bimetallic strip and the electromagnetic coil
remain inactive.
Operation under overload condition
When an overload occurs, the current flowing through the circuit exceeds the rated
value. This increased current heats the bimetallic strip. Due to unequal expansion of
the metals, the strip bends and causes the moving contact to separate from the fixed
contact. This opens the circuit and disconnects the supply. This action is slow and
provides protection against overload currents.
Operation under short-circuit condition
During a short-circuit fault, a very high current flows instantaneously. This high
current energizes the electromagnetic coil strongly, producing a magnetic force that
attracts the plunger. The plunger strikes the trip mechanism and quickly opens the
contacts. This action is instantaneous and protects the circuit from severe damage.
Arc quenching
When the contacts open, an electric arc is produced. The arc chute splits and cools
the arc, extinguishing it safely and preventing damage to the contacts.
Resetting of MCB
After the fault is cleared, the MCB can be manually reset .

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

2. Differentiate between MCB and MCCB.

[Link]. MCB MCCB

1 MCB stands for Miniature MCCB stands for Moulded
Circuit Breaker Case Circuit Breaker
2 Used for low current ratings Used for high current ratings
3 Current rating typically up Current rating ranges from
to 100 A 100 A to 2500 A
4 Fixed tripping characteris- Adjustable tripping charac-
tics teristics
5 Used mainly in domestic Used in industrial and heavy-
and light commercial instal- duty applications
lations
6 Breaking capacity is low Breaking capacity is high
7 Provides protection against Provides protection against
overload and short circuit overload, short circuit, and
earth fault
8 Smaller in size and compact Larger in size and robust con-
struction
9 Manual resetting after trip Manual or remote resetting
options available
10 Less expensive More expensive

3. Calculate the total energy consumption in kWh for a household with the
loads mentioned in the table below:

[Link]. Load Type Wattage Duration of use

1 15 LED Bulbs 15 W 12 hours
2 04 Fans 80 W 06 hours
3 01 Blender 1200 W 20 mins
4 03 Air Conditioners 1000 W 04 hours
5 Cooking Unit 8000 W 02 hours

Energy consumption is given by

Energy (kWh) = Power (kW) × Time (hours)

1. Energy consumed by LED bulbs

Total power = 15 × 15 = 225 W = 0.225 kW

Energy = 0.225 × 12 = 2.7 kWh

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

2. Energy consumed by fans

Total power = 4 × 80 = 320 W = 0.32 kW

Energy = 0.32 × 6 = 1.92 kWh

3. Energy consumed by blender

Power = 1200 W = 1.2 kW

20
Time = 20 minutes = = 0.333 hours
60
Energy = 1.2 × 0.333 = 0.4 kWh

4. Energy consumed by air conditioners

Total power = 3 × 1000 = 3000 W = 3 kW

Energy = 3 × 4 = 12 kWh

5. Energy consumed by cooking unit

Power = 8000 W = 8 kW

Energy = 8 × 2 = 16 kWh

Total energy consumption

Total energy = 2.7 + 1.92 + 0.4 + 12 + 16

Total energy consumption = 33.02 kWh

4. What is a battery? Give its classification with applications and suitable

examples.

A battery is an electrochemical device that converts stored chemical energy into elec-
trical energy by means of chemical reactions. It consists of one or more electrochemical
cells connected in series or parallel to provide the required voltage and current. Bat-
teries are widely used as sources of DC power in various electrical and electronic
applications.
Classification of Batteries
Batteries are broadly classified into two types based on their ability to be recharged:
1. Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are non-rechargeable batteries. In these batteries, the chemical
reaction is irreversible, and once the active materials are consumed, the battery cannot
be reused.
• Characteristics:
– Cannot be recharged.
– Have long shelf life.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

– Suitable for low-power applications.

• Examples:
– Dry cell (zinc–carbon battery)
– Alkaline battery
• Applications:
– Remote controls
– Wall clocks
– Flashlights
– Portable electronic devices
2. Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteries are rechargeable batteries. In these batteries, the chemical reac-
tion is reversible, allowing the battery to be charged and discharged repeatedly.
• Characteristics:
– Can be recharged multiple times.
– Higher efficiency.
– Suitable for high-current applications.
• Examples:
– Lead–acid battery
– Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) battery
– Lithium-ion battery
• Applications:
– Automobiles
– Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)
– Solar power systems
– Electric vehicles

5. Explain the purpose and factors affecting earthing.

Purpose of Earthing
Earthing is the process of connecting the non–current-carrying metallic parts of elec-
trical equipment to the general mass of the earth through a low-resistance conductor.
The main purposes of earthing are:
1. To protect human beings from electric shock by ensuring that exposed metal
parts do not attain a dangerous potential.
2. To provide a low-resistance path for fault current so that protective devices such
as fuses and circuit breakers operate quickly.
3. To protect electrical equipment from damage during insulation failure or light-
ning surges.
4. To stabilize the voltage of the electrical system with respect to earth potential.
5. To improve the overall reliability and safety of the electrical installation.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

Factors Affecting Earthing

The effectiveness of an earthing system depends on several factors which influence the
earth resistance:
1. Soil Resistivity: Soil resistivity is the most important factor. Moist soil has
low resistivity, whereas dry, rocky, or sandy soil has high resistivity, resulting in
poor earthing.
2. Moisture Content: Higher moisture content in the soil reduces earth resis-
tance. Dry soil increases resistance and reduces earthing effectiveness.
3. Type of Soil: Clay and loamy soils provide good earthing, while sandy and
rocky soils offer high resistance.
4. Depth of Earth Electrode: Increasing the depth of the earth electrode re-
duces earth resistance, as deeper layers usually have higher moisture content.
5. Size and Shape of Electrode: Larger surface area of the electrode in contact
with soil results in lower earth resistance.
6. Spacing Between Electrodes: When multiple electrodes are used, proper
spacing is required to ensure effective earthing and avoid overlapping resistance
areas.

6. What is earthing? Explain any one type of earthing.

Earthing
Earthing is the process of connecting the non–current-carrying metallic parts of elec-
trical equipment to the general mass of the earth through a low-resistance conductor.
The main purpose of earthing is to protect human beings from electric shock and to
ensure safe operation of electrical installations by providing a low-resistance path for
fault current.
Plate Earthing
Plate earthing is one of the commonly used methods of earthing in which a metal plate
is buried in the ground and connected to the electrical system through an earthing
conductor.

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

In this method, a copper plate is used as the earth electrode. The plate is usually
of size 60 cm × 60 cm and thickness of about 3.15 mm for copper or 6.3 mm for
GI. The plate is buried vertically in the ground at a depth of about 3 to 5 meters
below the ground level.

The plate is surrounded by alternate layers of charcoal and common salt.

Charcoal helps in retaining moisture, while salt improves the conductivity of the
surrounding soil, thereby reducing earth resistance. A GI or copper strip is
securely connected to the plate using bolts and nuts and brought to the equipment
to be earthed.

A perforated GI pipe is provided near the plate to pour water periodically so as

to maintain soil moisture and ensure effective earthing.

Advantages
Plate earthing provides low earth resistance and reliable protection. It is suitable
for installations requiring effective earthing and is commonly used in residential and
commercial buildings.

7. Explain the important characteristics of batteries.

The performance and suitability of a battery for a particular application are deter-
mined by its characteristics. The important characteristics of batteries are explained
below.
1. Nominal Voltage
The nominal voltage of a battery is the rated voltage available across its terminals
during normal operation. It depends on the type of electrochemical cell used. For
example, a lead-acid cell has a nominal voltage of about 2 V per cell.
2. Capacity (Ampere-hour rating)
Battery capacity is defined as the total charge that a battery can supply and is ex-
pressed in ampere-hours (Ah). It represents the product of discharge current and the
time for which the battery can deliver that current. Higher capacity indicates longer
backup time.
3. Energy Capacity
Energy capacity indicates the total energy stored in a battery and is expressed in watt-
hours (Wh). It is given by the product of battery voltage and ampere-hour capacity.
This characteristic determines how much useful work the battery can perform.
4. Efficiency
Battery efficiency is the ratio of output energy to input energy during charging and
discharging. It is of two types: ampere-hour efficiency and watt-hour efficiency. Higher
efficiency indicates better battery performance with lower losses.
5. Internal Resistance
Internal resistance is the opposition offered by the battery to the flow of current within
it. A lower internal resistance results in less voltage drop during discharge and better

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I Semester – CSE Basic Electrical Engineering

current delivery capability.

6. Charging and Discharging Rate
This characteristic indicates how fast a battery can be charged or discharged safely.
Excessive charging or discharging rates may reduce battery life or cause damage.
7. Cycle Life
Cycle life is the number of complete charge and discharge cycles a battery can undergo
before its capacity falls below a specified value. A higher cycle life indicates a longer-
lasting battery.
8. Shelf Life
Shelf life is the duration for which a battery can be stored without significant loss of
capacity. Primary batteries generally have longer shelf life than secondary batteries.

8. How is a wire different from a cable? Explain.

A wire and a cable are both used for conducting electrical current, but they differ in
construction, application, and protection.

A wire is a single electrical conductor made of copper or aluminium. It may be either

bare or insulated with a thin layer of insulating material. Wires are generally used
for internal wiring and in applications where mechanical protection is not critical.
Since a wire consists of only one conductor, it is lighter, flexible, and suitable for
low-voltage and low-current applications.

A cable, on the other hand, consists of two or more conductors bundled together
and individually insulated from each other. These conductors are further enclosed
within a common protective outer sheath made of PVC, rubber, or other insulating
materials. The outer sheath provides mechanical protection, moisture resistance, and
insulation from environmental effects.

Cables are used where higher voltage levels, higher current capacity, and better safety
are required. They are commonly employed in underground installations, power
transmission, industrial wiring, and outdoor applications.

In summary, a wire is a single conductor with minimal insulation, whereas a cable is

a group of insulated conductors with an additional protective covering, making cables
safer and more robust than wires.

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