CALCULUS II – COMPLETE CLASS NOTES
These Calculus II notes continue from Calculus I and focus mainly on integrals, techniques
of integration, and their applications. The notes are written in a clear classroom style for
high school to early college students.
1. Review of Integrals
Calculus II begins with a review of integrals from Calculus I. Integration is the reverse
process of differentiation and is used to find areas, accumulated quantities, and total
change.
An indefinite integral represents a family of functions: ∫ f(x) dx = F(x) + C
A definite integral represents a numerical value and is written as: ∫ from a to b f(x) dx
Definite integrals are used to calculate area under a curve between two limits.
2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus connects differentiation and integration.
Part 1 states that if F is an antiderivative of f, then: ∫ from a to b f(x) dx = F(b) − F(a)
Part 2 states that the derivative of an integral function returns the original function.
This theorem makes it possible to compute definite integrals easily.
3. Techniques of Integration
Not all integrals can be solved directly. Several techniques are used to simplify integration.
Common techniques include: - Substitution method - Integration by parts - Partial fractions
- Trigonometric substitution
Choosing the correct technique depends on the form of the integrand.
4. Substitution Method
The substitution method is used when an integral contains a composite function.
Steps: 1. Choose u = inner function 2. Compute du 3. Rewrite the integral in terms of u 4.
Integrate 5. Substitute back
Example: ∫ 2x(x² + 1) dx can be solved by letting u = x² + 1.
5. Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is based on the product rule for derivatives.
Formula: ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
This method is useful when the integrand is a product of two different types of functions,
such as polynomial and exponential functions.
6. Partial Fractions
Partial fractions are used to integrate rational functions.
Steps: 1. Factor the denominator 2. Break the fraction into simpler terms 3. Integrate each
term separately
This method is especially useful for rational expressions involving polynomials.
7. Applications of Integrals
Integrals are widely used in real-life applications.
1. Area Between Curves: Used to find the area enclosed by two functions.
2. Volume of Solids: Methods include: - Disk method - Washer method - Shell method
3. Average Value of a Function: Average value is found using definite integrals.
8. Improper Integrals
Improper integrals involve infinite limits or discontinuities.
Examples include: ∫ from 1 to ∞ (1/x²) dx
Improper integrals may converge (finite value) or diverge (infinite value).
Limits are used to evaluate improper integrals.
9. Sequences and Series (Introduction)
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.
Common series include: - Arithmetic series - Geometric series
Infinite series may converge or diverge depending on their behavior.
10. Taylor and Maclaurin Series (Preview)
Taylor and Maclaurin series represent functions as infinite power series.
Maclaurin series are centered at x = 0. Taylor series are centered at x = a.
These series are used to approximate functions and solve complex problems.
11. Summary
Calculus II expands the ideas of Calculus I and focuses heavily on integration and its
applications. Understanding techniques of integration and their practical uses is essential
for success in higher mathematics, physics, and engineering.
