Class: SS1 Senior Secondary 1

Subject: Biology
Topic: Cell and Its Environment
Week: 1
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of cell environment and describe the processes of diffusion,
osmosis, hemolysis, plasmolysis, and active transport.
2. Demonstrate these processes using simple day-to-day experimental activities.
3. State the importance of each cell-environment relationship in animals and plants, and
outline the effects of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions on cells.
Entry Behavior
Students can recall the basic structure of plant and animal cells from JSS3 Biology.
Instructional Materials (Teaching
Aids)
 Charts or diagrams of cells in different solutions (hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic).
 Fresh red onion epidermis or flower petal epidermis, concentrated salt/sugar solution.
 Potato slices, red onion epidermis slides, microscope (or hand lens).
 Iodine solution (for simple demos).
 Blackboard, markers, student notebooks.
 Video clips or printed handouts showing plasmolysis in plants.
Content
The cell and its environment, including diffusion, osmosis, hemolysis, plasmolysis, active
transport, effects of solutions, and their importance (detailed student lesson notes provided
below for copying into notebooks).
Teacher Activities
1. Introduces the topic by asking students to state what they know about cells and their
surroundings.
2. Explains key concepts using charts and diagrams.
3. Demonstrates simple experiments (e.g., osmosis in potato, plasmolysis in onion).
4. Guides students through group activities to observe processes.
5. Summarizes key points and links to real-life examples in plants and animals.
6. Evaluates understanding through questions.
Learner Activities
1. Listen attentively and copy detailed lesson notes into notebooks.
2. Participate in class discussions on cell-environment interactions.
3. Perform group experiments (e.g., place potato in salt water to observe osmosis).
4. Draw labelled diagrams of hemolysis and plasmolysis.
5. Answer evaluation questions.
Evaluation
1. What is osmosis? Give one example in plants and animals. Expected: Movement of
water across semi-permeable membrane from high to low concentration; e.g., root hair
absorption in plants, kidney function in animals.)
2. Differentiate between hypertonic and hypotonic solutions with diagrams.
3. Describe a simple experiment to show plasmolysis.
Assignment
1. Draw and label diagrams showing the effects of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic
solutions on plant and animal cells.
2. Research and write short notes 5 points each) on the role of active transport in the
human intestine and plant roots. Submit next class.

Student Lesson Notes: Cell and Its Environment

Topic: Cell and Its Environment
Meaning of Cell Environment
The cell environment is everything around a living cell, like the water, salts, sugars, and gases in
its surroundings. Cells are like tiny living factories inside plants and animals. They take in
nutrients and oxygen from their environment and release waste. This exchange happens through
the cell membrane, which acts like a gatekeeper.
For example, in your blood, red blood cells "live" in a watery environment full of oxygen and
nutrients. In plants, leaf cells are surrounded by air and soil water.
Key Processes of Cell-Environment
Interactions
Cells interact with their environment through special processes. Some of these processes do not
require energy and are called passive processes, while others require energy and are known as
active processes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles such as gases or small molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration until they are evenly distributed.
Diffusion does not require energy and happens naturally.
Examples: Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from body cells into the blood.
The smell of perfume spreading in a room.
Simple Experiment: Put a drop of food coloring in a glass of water. Watch the color spread
slowly without stirring.
Characteristics of Diffusion
1. Does not require energy
2. Occurs in gases and liquids
3. Continues until equilibrium is reached
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high water concentration (dilute
solution) to a region of low water concentration (concentrated solution) through a semi-permeable
membrane.
The cell membrane allows water to pass through but restricts larger molecules.
Examples: Water enters root hair cells from the soil in plants.
Osmosis helps the kidneys regulate water balance in animals.
Simple Experiment: Cut a potato into strips. Put one in salt water (concentrated), one in plain
water (dilute). After 30 minutes, the salt water potato shrinks (water leaves), plain water one
swells (water enters).
Conditions Necessary for Osmosis
1. Presence of water
2. Semi-permeable membrane
3. Difference in concentration
Hemolysis (In Animal Cells): Hemolysis occurs when animal cells, such as red blood cells, are
placed in a hypotonic solution. Water enters the cells by osmosis, causing them to swell and
eventually burst. It is defined as the process by which red blood cells split or burst as a result of
too much passing into it. Water enters the cell by osmosis, causing it to swell and burst (lyse).
Example: Red blood cells in pure water burst.
Simple Experiment: Use thin epidermis from red onion inner layer or colorful flower petal (e.g.,
hibiscus).
Place on slide with distilled water (hypotonic).
Observe under hand lens/microscope: cells swell as water enters, cytoplasm expands (mimics
hemolysis bursting in animal cells).
Plasmolysis (In Plant Cells): Plasmolysis occurs when plant cells are placed in a hypertonic
solution.
. It is defined as the outward movement of water from living cells when they are placed in a
hypertonic solution. It is often regarded as the opposite of osmosis. Water leaves the cell by
osmosis, shrinking the cytoplasm away from the cell wall. The cell doesn't burst due to the rigid
wall.
Example: Plants growing in salty soil lose water and begin to wilt.
Simple Experiment: Peel thin red onion epidermis. Mount on slide with water, then add
concentrated salt/sugar solution from edge (blot opposite side with filter paper to draw solution
in). Cytoplasm shrinks away from cell wall. Add water to reverse (deplasmolysis). Observe
under microscope/hand lens.
Similarities and Differences Between Plasmolysis and Hemolysis
Similarities
1. They both occur in living cells.
2. Both processes can lead to the death of cells concerned.
3. Cells expand initially as more water comes into the cells.
Differences
Plasmolysis Hemolysis
It occurs in plant cells. It occurs in red blood cells.
Plant cell shrinks Red blood cells bursts
It occurs in a hypotonic solution. It occurs in hypertonic solution
Active Transport: Active transport is the movement of substances from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy released from respiration.
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient (low to high concentration)
using cell energy ATP. This process requires special carrier proteins in the cell membrane.
Example: In intestines, glucose is absorbed from low to high concentration. In roots, mineral salts
move up. Like pumping water uphill (needs energy), not letting it flow down.
Characteristics of Active Transport
 1. Requires energy
2. Occurs in living cells only
3. Uses carrier proteins
Effects of Solutions on Cells
Solutions are compared to the cell's cytoplasm:
Isotonic Solution: When the solute concentration of the cell and it’s environment are the
same , it is said to be isotonic. Here, there is no net water movement. Cell stays normal.
E.g., Blood saline for IV drips.)
Hypotonic Solution: When a cell is surrounded by more water outside (dilute). Here water
enters cell by osmosis. Animal cells burst (hemolysis); plant cells swell (turgid, firm).
Hypertonic Solution: When a cell is surrounded less water outside (concentrated). Water
leaves cell. Animal cells shrink (crenation); plant cells plasmolyse (shrink, wilt).
Solution Effect on Animal Effect on
Example
Type Cell Plant Cell
Normal
Isotonic Normal shape Turgid (firm)
saline
Swells, bursts
Hypotonic Very turgid Pure water
(hemolysis)
Plasmolysis
Hypertonic Shrinks (crenation) Salt water
(wilts)
Importance in Animals and Plants
Diffusion
a. It supplies oxygen to cells (lungs, gills).
b. It removes CO₂.
c. Vital for breathing.
Osmosis:
a. It balances water in body (kidneys prevent swelling)
b. It helps plants stay firm (turgor for upright leaves).
Hemolysis:
a. It is harmful if unbalanced (e.g., drinking too much water)
b. It is used in medical uses like blood storage.
Plasmolysis:
 It helps plants wilt to signal water need
 It is used in food preservation (pickles in brine).
Active Transport:
a. It helps in absorbing nutrients efficiently (e.g., sodium-potassium pump in nerves for
signals)
b. It helps take roots take minerals from poor soil.
These processes keep cells alive by controlling what enters and leaves.
Factors Affecting Each Cell
Interaction
These processes are influenced by environmental and biological factors. Higher rates mean faster
movement.
Diffusion:
a. Concentration gradient: The bigger difference in concentration of molecules, the faster
the rate of diffusion.
b. Temperature: The higher the temperature , the faster particle movement.
 c. Surface area: The larger the membrane , the more exchange.
d. Distance/thickness: Thinner or smaller membrane results in faster rate of diffusion.
Osmosis:
a. Water potential gradient: Water moves faster into a cell when there’s a bigger difference
between inside and outside.
b. Temperature: Warmer conditions increase the rate of water movement.
c. Surface area & membrane thickness: Larger surface area and thinner membranes allow faster
water flow.
d. Solute size: Smaller solutes create stronger gradients, speeding up osmosis.
Hemolysis:
a. External solution tonicity: Cells swell and burst faster in very hypotonic solutions.
b. Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the rate of water entry.
c. Cell membrane permeability: Damaged membranes allow quicker bursting.
Plasmolysis:
a. External solute concentration: Higher solute outside the cell draws more water out.
b. Temperature & surface area: Warmer temperatures and larger surface areas increase water
loss.
c. Cell wall strength: Rigid walls prevent bursting and provide support.
Active Transport:
a. Energy availability: More ATP allows faster transport of substances against gradients.
b. Temperature: Moderate warmth speeds up transport; too high can damage proteins.
c. Carrier protein number & concentration gradient: More carriers or steeper gradients require
more energy for transport.
Biological Significance in Living
Things
These interactions maintain homeostasis (stable internal conditions), enable nutrient uptake, waste
removal, and cell turgidity. Without them, cells die from imbalance.
1. Diffusion: Allows gas exchange for respiration without energy use.
2. Osmosis: Maintains water balance, prevents bursting/shrinking, and keeps plant cells
turgid.
3. Haemolysis: Indicates osmotic imbalance; excess is harmful, but relevant in
medicine.
4. Plasmolysis: Shows plant wilting; reversible for survival.
5. Active Transport: Enables selective nutrient absorption and nerve impulse function.
Organisms Thriving on These Interactions
Certain organisms depend on these for survival:
Amoeba (protist): Uses diffusion for oxygen/CO₂ exchange and osmosis for water balance
in freshwater. It’s contractile vacuole expels excess water via osmosis. It survives by
osmoregulation.
Paramecium (protist): It relies on osmosis and active transport for ions; vacuoles pump out
water.
Root Hair Cells in Plants: It uses osmosis in absorbing water, active transport to take up
minerals and enables growth in nutrient-poor soil.
Intestinal Villi in Humans/Animals: Active transport absorbs glucose/amino acids.
Guard Cells in Plant Leaves: Osmosis causes opening/closing for CO₂ diffusion in
photosynthesis.
Topic: Tissues and Supporting Systems in Animals
Week: 2
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Explain the biological significance of skeletons and describe forms of skeletons (chitin,
cartilage, bone) with differences between bone and cartilage.
2. Differentiate types of skeletons (hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton) and identify parts of
the vertebrate skeleton (skull, ribs, sternum, vertebral column, appendicular skeleton).
3. Describe types of joints, their structure, functions of the human skeleton, and relate to
everyday movements.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall cell-environment interactions from Week 1 and basic animal body support from
Basic Science.
Instructional Materials Teaching
Aids)
Models or charts of human skeleton (full and labelled parts).
Chicken bones (cooked, cleaned), cartilage from chicken wing, insect exoskeleton (e.g.,
dried locust shell).
Diagrams of skeleton types, joints (ball-and-socket, hinge), X-ray images (printed).
String/rope for hydrostatic skeleton demo, whiteboard, markers.
Content
Tissues and supporting systems in animals, focusing on skeletons, their forms, types, vertebrate
structure, joints, and functions (detailed student lesson notes below).
Teacher Activities
1. Introduces with question: "How do you stand upright without collapsing?" Leads to skeleton
discussion.
2. Shows models/charts, demonstrates flexibility (cartilage vs. bone).
3. Guides drawing/labeling of skeleton parts and joint types.
4. Explains functions with real-life examples (e.g., running, protection).
5. Conducts simple demo with rope (hydrostatic) and insect shell.
Learner Activities
1. Copy detailed lesson notes.
2. Observe/compare chicken bone/cartilage samples.
3. Draw/label vertebrate skeleton and joints in notebooks.
4. Discuss in pairs: "How does skeleton help athletes?"
5. Perform rope-squeezing demo for hydrostatic skeleton.
Evaluation
1. List three functions of the skeleton and two types of joints with examples.
2. Differentiate exoskeleton from endoskeleton.
3. Name four parts of the axial skeleton.
Assignment
1. Draw and label the human skeleton, showing axial and appendicular parts.
2. Collect and bring insect exoskeleton (e.g., locust) for next class observation. Write 5 points on
how joints help daily activities.
Student Lesson Notes: Tissues and Supporting Systems (Animals)
Topic: Tissues and Supporting Systems (Animals)
Biological Significance of Skeletons
Skeleton is the bony framework of the body which provides support, protection, movement,
and shape to animals. Without them, soft bodies collapse like a jelly without a frame. They
anchor muscles for locomotion and store minerals (calcium). In humans, skeletons enable upright
walking, protect brain/heart, and produce blood cells.
Forms of Skeletal Materials
Skeletons are made of different tissues:
1. Chitin: This is a non living tough, flexible polysaccharide found in insects/arthropods
(e.g., crab shell, insect cuticle). It is lightweight, waterproof, but limits growth of organism
which use it as skeleton, in order for them to grow they under a process called molting,
which involves the shedding of old skeleton and putting on a new one.
2. Cartilage: This is a flexible, rubbery tissue (like nose tip, ear) found in the skeleton of
complex vertebrates. It contains living cells known as chondrocytes in it’s matrix,
carbohydrates and protein fibers. Cartilage nous fishes like sharks, rays and mammals
possess this kind of skeleton.
Types of Cartilage:
a. Hyaline cartilage: It is smooth, glassy found in the nose, trachea rings and
surface of moveable joints to reduce friction.
b. Elastic cartilage: It is bendy and springs back, it is found in the ear flap.
c. Fibrocartilage: It is tough, shock-absorbing and bears weight. It is found in spine
discs.
3. Bone: This is a hard, rigid tissue with calcium salts, blood vessels, nerves. It consists of
bone cells called Osteocytes in Haversian canals. It is stronger than cartilage but heavier.
Differences Between Bone & Cartilage:
Feature Bone Cartilage
Flexible, non-calcified
Structure Hard, calcified matrix
matrix
Cells Osteocytes in canals Chondrocytes in lacunae
Blood Avascular (nutrients by
Has vessels (living)
Supply diffusion)
Growth Grows by addition Grows from inside
Location Limbs, spine Nose, ears, joints ends
Strength Rigid support Flexible cushion

Types of Skeletons
a. Hydrostatic Skeleton: This kind of skeleton is made of a fluid-filled cavity under
pressure with no hard parts. Example: Earthworms squeeze coelom fluid to move.
b. Exoskeleton: This is a hard outer covering made of chitin found in insects and crabs. It
protects the body and prevents water loss. Growth requires molting, which is risky, and it
limits the maximum size of the organism.
 c. Endoskeleton: This is an internal skeleton made of bone or cartilage, found in humans and
fish. It grows with the body, provides internal support, and allows muscles to attach inside
for precise movement.
VERTEBRATE SKELETON
The skeleton of a human is divided into Axial (central axis) and Appendicular (limbs) with a
total 206 bones in adults.

AXIAL SKELETON (80 BONES): This is the body's central core. It protects the brain, heart,
lungs, and spinal cord while helping us stand tall and breathe.
Components of the Axial Skeleton
 Skull (29 bones): This is the head's protective helmet. It is made up of several flat bones
which are joined together by means of joints called sutures.
1. Cranium (8 bones): This is a hard dome around the brain which consists of frontal
bone (forehead), 2 parietal (top sides), 2 temporal (ears/side), occipital (back/base),
sphenoid (middle base like a bat), ethmoid (nose area). They are joined by
immovable sutures. They protect the brain from bumps.
2. Face (14 bones): It gives shape to the face. It consists of 2 nasal (nose bridge), 2
maxilla (upper jaw/teeth holder), 2 zygomatic (cheekbones), mandible (lower jaw—
only movable, opens for eating/talking), 2 palatine (mouth roof), 2 inferior conchae
(air flow in nose), vomer (nose divider).
3. Ear ossicles (6 bones): This is the tiny sound bones in ears—3 per ear: malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil), stapes (stirrup). It vibrates to help us hear whispers.
4. Hyoid (1 bone): It is U-shaped under the jaw with no direct bone link, it holds the
tongue for talking/swallowing, like a swing seat.
 Vertebral Column Spine/Backbone (126 bones): This is the flexible pillar from neck to
tail. It protects the spinal cord. It’s split into five groups, namely;
1. Cervical (7): It is found in the neck region . The first cervical, C1 (atlas) nods "yes,"
and the second cervical , C2 (axis) shakes "no." The third to seventh bones are the
normal cervical bones. The atlas serve as holes for blood to brain.
2. Thoracic (12): It is found in the chest region, they serve as hooks that attach to the
ribs. Heart-shaped body for twisting.
3. Lumbar (5): It is found in the lower back, they are the biggest/strongest for lifting
bags. Thick to carry weight.
4. Sacrum (1 fused from 5): They are five number and are fused together forming a
structure known as sacrum. It joins hips, supports sitting/organs.
5. Coccyx (1 fused from 4): They are tiny tailbone end. They serve as muscle anchor
for balance. Cushioned by rubbery discs between vertebrae.
 Thoracic Cage Chest Cage (25 bones): This is the rib basket protects lungs/heart. It helps
breathing by expanding.
1. Sternum: The sternum is the flat breastbone located at the center of the chest and
shaped like a shield. It has three parts: the manubrium at the top, which joins the
collarbones; the long body, where ribs attach; and the xiphoid process at the bottom,
which serves as a muscle attachment point.
2. Ribs: Humans have 24 ribs arranged in 12 pairs, curved like the hoops of a barrel.
The first seven pairs are true ribs because they attach directly to the sternum. The 8th
to 10th pairs are false ribs, attached indirectly through shared cartilage. The 11th and
 12th pairs are floating ribs, attached only at the back and free at the front. Rib
muscles contract and relax during inhalation and exhalation.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON: The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones and
includes the arms, legs, and their attachment points. It is responsible for movement and
locomotion, acting like branches extending from the trunk of the body to allow reaching
and walking.
1. Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle forms the shoulder region and consists of four
bones that support free arm movement. It acts like a loose sling, allowing a wide
range of motion.
2. Clavicles: The clavicles, or collarbones, are two long S-shaped bones extending
from the sternum to the shoulders. They keep the arms away from the chest and are
easily fractured during falls.
3. Scapulae: The scapulae, or shoulder blades, are flat triangular bones located on the
upper back. Each has a ridge for muscle attachment, an acromion that joins the
clavicle, and a glenoid cavity where the upper arm bone fits. This structure allows
the shoulder to move in a full circle.
4. Upper Limbs: The upper limbs contain 60 bones and are used for activities such as
throwing, writing, and hugging. The left and right arms are mirror images of each
other.
5. Humerus: The humerus is the long bone of the upper arm. Its rounded head fits into
the shoulder socket, while its lower end forms part of the elbow joint. It serves as the
main attachment point for arm muscles.
6. Radius and Ulna: The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm. The radius
lies on the thumb side and rotates to allow twisting movements, while the ulna lies
on the little-finger side and forms a hinge at the elbow. Together, they enable hand
rotation.
7. Carpals: The carpals are 16 small wrist bones, with eight in each hand. They are
arranged in two rows and slide over one another to provide flexibility and a strong
grip.
8. Metacarpals and Phalanges (Hand): Each hand has five metacarpal bones forming
the palm. The thumb is the shortest and most mobile. The phalanges are the finger
bones, with three in each finger and two in the thumb, allowing bending and
pinching movements.
9. Pelvic Girdle: The pelvic girdle consists of two hip bones that form a strong base
for the legs. It supports body weight and protects internal organs. In females, it is
wider to allow childbirth.
10. Pelvic (Coxal) Bones: Each pelvic bone is formed from the fusion of the ilium,
ischium, and pubis. The acetabulum is a deep socket that holds the head of the thigh
bone, providing strong support for movement and weight bearing.
11. Lower Limbs: The lower limbs contain 60 bones and are adapted for walking,
running, and jumping. They are thicker and stronger to support body weight.
12. Femur: The femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body. Its head fits into the
hip socket, and its lower end forms part of the knee joint. Its angled shape allows
humans to walk upright.
13. Patella: The patella, or kneecap, is a round bone that protects the knee joint. It
increases the efficiency of thigh muscles during movement.
 14. Tibia and Fibula: The tibia and fibula form the lower leg. The tibia is the larger
bone and bears most of the body weight, while the fibula is thinner and provides
support and muscle attachment.
15. Tarsals: The tarsals are 14 ankle and foot bones, seven in each foot. They include
the talus for ankle movement and the calcaneus forming the heel. These bones help
absorb shock during walking.
16. Metatarsals and Phalanges (Foot): The metatarsals form the middle of the foot,
with the big toe being the strongest. The toe phalanges resemble finger bones, with
two in the big toe and three in the others, helping push the body forward during
walking.
Total
Section Main Job
Bones
Protect core,
Axial 80
posture 21
Appendicula
126 Move/grasp 23
r

Joints: Types and Structure

Joints are places where two or more bones meet and they allow movement in the body. Synovial
joints contain synovial fluid, which acts like oil to reduce friction. They are enclosed in a capsule
lined with a membrane and are held together by ligaments that connect bone to bone. Synovial
joints function like well-oiled door hinges.
Types of Joints
1. Immovable joints: They are also called synarthroses, and are found in the skull where
bones are joined by sutures and no movement occurs.
2. Slightly movable joints: They are known as amphiarthroses, and are found between the
vertebrae of the backbone and allow bending and limited movement.
3. Freely movable joints: They are called synovial or diarthroses, and are the most common
joints, they allow wide ranges of movement.
4. Hinge Joint: The hinge joint allows movement in one plane only, such as bending and
straightening. Examples include the knee and elbow joints, and they function like a door
hinge.
5. Ball-and-Socket Joint: The ball-and-socket joint allows movement in all directions. The
rounded head of one bone fits into a socket of another, as seen in the hip and shoulder
joints. It works like a ball fitting inside a cup.
6. Pivot Joint: The pivot joint allows rotational movement around a central point. An example
is the joint between the first and second neck vertebrae, which allows the head to turn, like
turning a key In a lock.
7. Gliding Joint: The gliding joint allows bones to slide slightly over one another. It is found
in the wrist and ankle, enabling small controlled movements.
Functions of Skeleton in Man
Support: Holds body upright like pillars.
Protection: Shields organs (skull-brain, ribs-heart).
Movement: Levers for muscles (biceps pull humerus).
Mineral Storage: Calcium/phosphate reserves.
Blood Production: Red marrow in bones makes RBCs.
Shape: Defines human form.
Problems of the Skeleton
Osteoporosis is a condition where bones become weak due to loss of calcium. Arthritis is the
inflammation of joints, causing pain and stiffness. Regular exercise helps to strengthen bones and
joints.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Explain what supporting tissues in plants are.
2. Describe the structure and location of parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and xylem
tissues.
3. Explain how supporting tissues help plants remain upright.
4. Compare supporting tissues in plants with the functions of the skeleton in animals.
Entry Behaviour
Students have prior knowledge of:
The animal skeleton and its functions (Week 2)
Cell structure and interaction with the environment (Week 1)
Instructional Materials / Teaching Aids
1. Fresh young plant stems (e.g. maize, hibiscus)
2. Razor blade for cutting thin sections
3. Microscope or hand lens
4. Microscope slides and water
5. Simple stain (e.g. safranin)
6. Charts showing plant stem cross-section
7. Animal skeleton chart
Teacher Activities
1. Asks students how plants stand upright without bones
2. Demonstrates stem sectioning and shows tissues using charts or microscope
3. Explains each supporting tissue with real-life examples
4. Compares plant supporting tissues with animal skeleton functions
5. Guides students to draw and label a dicot stem cross-section
Learner Activities
Students should:
a. Listen attentively to explanations
b. Observe stem sections in pairs
c. Copy lesson notes into notebooks
d. Draw and label diagrams
e. Discuss why plants wilt when they lose water
Evaluation
a. Students should be able to:
b. Explain two differences between collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
c. State two functions of supporting tissues in plants.
Assignment
a. Draw and label a neat cross-section of a dicot stem.
b. Observe a wilting plant at home and explain why it happens.

STUDENT LESSON NOTES

(To be copied into notebooks)
SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON
Plants do not have bones like animals, yet they remain upright and firm. This is made possible by
special tissues known as supporting tissues, which strengthen the plant body and help it resist
gravity, wind, and other forces. These tissues work together to keep leaves raised for sunlight and
stems strong for growth.
The main supporting tissues in plants are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and xylem.
Parenchyma Tissue
Parenchyma is made up of living cells with thin cell walls and large vacuoles filled with water.
The cells are loosely packed, leaving air spaces between them, which makes the tissue soft.
Parenchyma is found in:
a. Cortex of stems and roots
b. Mesophyll of leaves
c. Fleshy parts of fruits
Support in parenchyma comes from turgor pressure. When water enters the cells by osmosis, they
swell and press against one another, making young plants firm. When water is lost, the cells shrink
and the plant wilts. This explains why herbaceous plants depend greatly on water for support.
Collenchyma Tissue
Collenchyma provides flexible support. Its cells are living and elongated, with unevenly thickened
cell walls, especially at the corners. The thickening is made of cellulose and pectin.
It is found:
a. Just beneath the epidermis
b. In leaf stalks and along leaf veins
c. In young stems
Collenchyma allows plant parts to bend without breaking. For example, a young celery stalk bends
and springs back because of collenchyma tissue, helping plants withstand wind and movement.
Sclerenchyma Tissue
Sclerenchyma is the strongest supporting tissue. Its cells are dead at maturity and have very thick
lignified cell walls, making them extremely hard.
There are two types:
a. Fibres – long and thin cells for strength
b. Sclereids (stone cells) – short, thick cells that give hardness
Sclerenchyma is found in:
a. Seed coats and nutshells
b. Leaf veins
c. Around vascular bundles
d. Coconut shell
It provides permanent rigid support, especially in mature plant parts.
Xylem Tissue
Xylem mainly transports water but also provides strong support. It is made of dead cells such as
vessels and tracheids with thick lignified walls.
Xylem:
 Runs through stems, roots, and leaves
 Forms wood in trees through secondary growth
 Without xylem support, tall trees would not be able to stand upright.
Mechanism of Support in Plants
Plant support depends on:
a. Turgor pressure in parenchyma (young plants)
b. Flexible strength from collenchyma
c. Rigid support from sclerenchyma and xylem (woody plants)
This combination allows plants to grow tall while adapting to their environment.
Support in Herbaceous and Woody Plants
Plants are supported in different ways depending on whether they are herbaceous (soft and non-
woody) or woody (hard and tree-like).
Support in Herbaceous Plants
Herbaceous plants are small, soft plants with green stems, such as tomato, spinach, and grasses.
They do not have much woody tissue, so their support mainly depends on water.
Support in herbaceous plants is provided by:
a. Turgor Pressure in Parenchyma Cells
b. Parenchyma cells contain large vacuoles filled with water.
When water enters the cells by osmosis, the cells become swollen and firm.
This internal pressure, called turgor pressure, keeps the plant upright.
When water is lost, the cells become flaccid and the plant wilts.
Collenchyma Tissue
Collenchyma provides flexible support in young stems and leaf stalks.
It allows the plant to bend in the wind without breaking.
Herbaceous plants therefore rely mainly on water pressure and flexible tissues for support.
Support in Woody Plants
Woody plants include trees and shrubs such as mango, iroko, and coconut. These plants grow tall
and live for many years, so they require strong and permanent support.
Support in woody plants is provided by:
a. Sclerenchyma Tissue
Sclerenchyma cells have thick, lignified walls and are dead at maturity.
They give rigidity and strength to mature plant parts.
b. Xylem Tissue (Wood)
Xylem vessels and tracheids have thick lignified walls.
As the plant grows, layers of xylem build up to form wood.
This wood forms a strong framework that supports tall trees.
Woody plants therefore depend mainly on lignified tissues rather than water pressure.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON IN ANIMALS

The skeleton in animals:
1. Supports the body and gives shape
2. Protects vital organs (e.g. skull, rib cage)
3. Enables movement by muscle attachment
4. Produces blood cells in bone marrow
5. Stores minerals such as calcium
COMPARISON BETWEEN PLANT SUPPORT AND ANIMAL SKELETON
Both systems provide support and protection.
However:
1. Animal skeletons are rigid, internal, and made of bones
2. Plant support is spread throughout tissues and depends on water and lignin
3. Both ensure survival in different ways suited to their lifestyles.
Topic: Nutrition in Mammals
Week: 4
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify food substances, classes of food, and their importance in mammals.
2. Differentiate autotrophs from heterotrophs, and explain balanced diet and types of
heterotrophic nutrition.
3. State the importance of nutrition in living things.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall plant supporting tissues from Week 3 and basic feeding from JSS Biology.
Instructional Materials Teaching
Aids)
Charts of food classes/deficiency diseases, food samples (yam, beans, oil, fruits), test reagents
(iodine for starch, Benedict's for sugar), balanced diet pyramid diagram.
Content
Food substances, autotrophs/heterotrophs, classes of food, balanced diet, types of heterotrophic
nutrition, importance (detailed student notes below).
Teacher Activities
Introduces with question: "Why do we eat food?" Explains classes via food tests, shows deficiency
charts, guides balanced diet discussion.
Learner Activities
Copy segmented notes, perform food tests in groups, draw food pyramid, discuss personal diets.
Evaluation
List two sources each for protein and vitamin C. What is a balanced diet?
Assignment
Plan a day's balanced diet for a teenager using local foods. List deficiency symptoms of vitamin A
and iron.

STUDENT LESSON NOTES: NUTRITION IN MAMMALS

Food Substances and Types of Nutrition
Food substances are materials that living organisms take in to provide energy, growth, repair of
tissues, and regulation of body processes.
Mammals cannot manufacture their own food, so they depend on other organisms for nourishment.
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
Autotrophs are organisms that make their own food, usually using sunlight in a process called
photosynthesis. Examples: green plants, algae.
Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot make their own food and must feed on other organisms.
Examples: mammals (humans, cows, dogs).
Types of Heterotrophs (Based on Food):
 Carnivores: They eat flesh (lion, tiger). They have sharp teeth for tearing meat.
 Herbivores: They eat plants (cow, goat). They have flat teeth for grinding leaves.
 Omnivores: They eat both plants and animals (humans, pigs). They have mixed teeth.
Autotrophs are like chefs who cook their own meals, while heterotrophs are like customers who
buy ready-made food.
Classes of Food
Food contains six main classes of nutrients, each with specific functions in the body. Some can be
tested in the laboratory (e.g. iodine test for starch).
1. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio
[Link] (e.g. glucose – C₆H₁₂O₆). They are the main source of quick energy.
Types of Carbohydrates:
a. Monosaccharides: This is a single unit of sugar. E.g. Glucose, fructose (found in
fruits and honey).
b. Disaccharides: They contain two units of sugar. E.g. Sucrose (table sugar), maltose.
c. Polysaccharides: They contain several units of sugar. E.g. Starch: Yam, rice,
cassava. Glycogen: Stored in liver and muscles of animals. Cellulose: Forms plant
cell walls (roughage).
Sources of carbohydrates: Rice, maize, yam, bread, fruits.
Importance: Provides energy for brain and muscles; excess is stored as fat.
Deficiency: Weakness, tiredness, low energy.
2. Proteins: Proteins are large molecules made of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids; the
body can make some, but others must come from food.
Sources of protein: Meat, fish, eggs, milk, beans, groundnuts.
Importance: Growth and repair of tissues (muscles, skin). Formation of enzymes and
hormones. Production of antibodies for immunity.
Deficiency Disease: Kwashiorkor (swollen belly, thin limbs, poor growth).
3. Fats and Oils: Fats and oils are made of fatty acids and glycerol. They supply more
energy than carbohydrates.
Sources of Fats and Oils: Palm oil, groundnut oil, butter, avocado, fish oil.
Importance: Long-term energy storage.
Insulation to keep the body warm.
Protection of internal organs.
Helps in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Deficiency: Poor growth.
Excess: Obesity and heart problems.
4. Mineral Salts: Mineral salts are inorganic substances needed in small quantities for body
functions.
Mineral Sources Functions Deficiency
Calcium Milk, fish, vegetables Strong bones & teeth, Rickets
clotting
Iron Meat, liver, spinach Forms haemoglobin Anaemia
Iodine Sea fish, iodized salt Thyroid hormone Goitre
Phosphorus Milk, nuts Bones, ATP energy Weak bones
5. Vitamins: Vitamins are organic substances needed in very small amounts.
Types of Vitamins
Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K (stored in body fat).
Water-soluble: B-complex, C (not stored).
Vitamin Sources Functions Deficiency
A Liver, carrot Vision, skin, Night blindness
immunity
B-complex Yeast, grains Energy release Beriberi
C Orange, guava Wound healing Scurvy
 D Sunlight, fish Calcium absorption Rickets
6. Water: Water (H₂O) makes up about 65% of body weight.
Sources: Drinking water, fruits (watermelon), metabolic reactions.
Importance: Medium for chemical reactions.
Transport of nutrients and wastes (blood).
Regulation of body temperature (sweating).
Excretion of waste products.
7. Roughages (Dietary Fibre): Roughage is indigestible cellulose found in plant foods.
Sources: Vegetable skins, fruits, whole grains.
Importance: Adds bulk to food.
Prevents constipation.
Helps reduce cholesterol.
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet contains all classes of food in the right proportions, depending on age, sex, and
activity.
Food Pyramid:
Base: Carbohydrates
Middle: Proteins, fruits, vegetables
Top: Fats and sweets
Importance:
1. Prevents deficiency diseases.
2. Supports growth and energy.
3. Maintains good health.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
Heterotrophic nutrition is a mode of nutrition in which an organism cannot manufacture its own
food and therefore depends on other living or dead organisms for nourishment. All animals, fungi,
and many bacteria are heterotrophs.
There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition:
1. Holozoic Nutrition: Holozoic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which
organisms take in solid food, digest it inside the body, absorb the useful nutrients, and
remove the waste materials. This type of nutrition is common in mammals and other
animals, including humans.
Stages of Holozoic Nutrition
Holozoic nutrition involves five stages:
1. Ingestion: Taking food into the body (eating). Example: A human eating rice and beans.
2. Digestion: Breaking down complex food into simpler soluble substances using enzymes.
Example: Starch broken down to glucose.
3. Absorption: Digested food passes into the blood through the intestine.
4. Assimilation: Absorbed food is used for energy, growth, and repair of tissues.
5. Egestion: Removal of undigested waste materials from the body as faeces.
Examples of Organisms with Holozoic Nutrition
Humans, Dogs, Cats, Cows, Lions
Types of Holozoic Organisms
Herbivores: They eat plants only (cow, goat).
Carnivores: They eat other animals (lion, tiger).
Omnivores: They eat both plants and animals (humans, pigs).
Importance:
Holozoic nutrition provides organisms with sufficient energy and nutrients needed for complex
body activities.
2. Saprophytic Nutrition: Saprophytic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which
organisms obtain food from dead and decaying organic matter. Organisms that feed this
way are called saprophytes.
How Saprophytic Nutrition Occurs
Saprophytes secrete digestive enzymes onto dead materials. They digest the food outside their
body (external digestion). They absorb the soluble nutrients into their body.
Examples of Saprophytic Organisms
Fungi (mushroom, mould, yeast), Some bacteria e.t.c.
Importance of Saprophytic Nutrition
a. Decomposes dead plants and animals.
b. Recycles nutrients back into the soil.
c. Prevents accumulation of dead organisms in the environment.
Example: Bread mould growing on stale bread feeds saprophytically by breaking down the bread.
 Parasitic Nutrition: Parasitic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which an
organism (the parasite) lives on or inside another organism (the host) and obtains food
from it, usually harming the host.
Types of Parasites
a. Ectoparasites: Live on the body surface of the host. Examples: Lice, ticks, fleas.
b. Endoparasites: Live inside the body of the host. Examples: Tapeworm, roundworm,
Plasmodium.
Effects of Parasitic Nutrition
a. Weakens the host.
b. Causes diseases and malnutrition.
c. May lead to death if untreated.
Examples:
 Tapeworm in the human intestine absorbs digested food.
 Plasmodium causes malaria in humans.
Comparison of Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition
Feature Holozoic Saprophytic Parasitic
Source of food Solid food Dead organic matter Living host
Digestion Internal External Host-derived
Harm to source No No Yes
Examples Human, dog Mushroom, mould Tapeworm, lice
Importance of Nutrition
a. It provides energy for work and play.
b. It helps builds and repairs the body.
c. It regulates body processes.
d. It fights diseases.
e. It enables growth and reproduction.
Without proper nutrition, organisms become weak and may die.
Nutrition is like fuel, oil, water, and repairs for a car—all are needed for smooth running.
SS1 Biology Mid-Term Continuous
Assessment
Week 5 Test Weeks 1- 4
Class: SS1
Subject: Biology
Total Marks: 40
Time: 45 minutes
Instructions: Answer any 4 questions. Each question carries 10 marks. Write clearly in your
answer booklets. Diagrams where necessary must be neat and labelled.
Question 1
(a) Define osmosis and diffusion. State two factors each that affect these processes. (3 marks)
(b) Describe a simple classroom experiment to demonstrate plasmolysis in plant cells using onion
epidermis. (4 marks)
(c) Draw a labelled diagram of a plant cell in a hypertonic solution. (2 marks)
Question 2
(a) List the two main divisions of the human skeleton and state one function of each. (3 marks)
(b) Describe the differences between bone and cartilage under the following: (i) cells (ii) blood
supply (iii) flexibility. (3 marks)
(c) Name two types of joints with one example each and state their movement. (2 marks).
Question 3
(a) Identify four supporting tissues in plants. (2 marks)
(b) Explain how parenchyma and collenchyma provide support in herbaceous plants. (4 marks)
(c) State two differences between animal skeletons and plant supporting tissues. 2 marks)
Question 4
(a) List the seven classes of food required by mammals. (3 marks)
(b) Complete the table below: (4 marks)
Sourc Deficiency
Vitamin Function
e Disease
Vitamin
C
Iron
Vitamin
A
(c) What is a balanced diet? State two importance. (3 marks)
Question 5
(a) Differentiate between autotrophs and heterotrophs. Give two examples of each. (3 marks)
(b) Name two types of heterotrophic nutrition and give one example organism for each. (2 marks)
(c) State five functions of the mammalian skeleton. (3 marks)
End of Assessment

Topic: Nutrition Continued) & Enzymes

Week: 6
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Describe feeding mechanisms, types and structure of mammalian teeth, dental formula, and
dentition adaptations.
Define enzymes, state their characteristics and importance in digestion.
Relate teeth adaptations to types of heterotrophs from Week 4.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall classes of food and balanced diet from Week 4 and mid-term test.
Instructional Materials Teaching
Aids)
Teeth models or real mammal skulls (goat/sheep), dental charts.
Enzyme demo: Fresh liver + hydrogen peroxide (fizzing shows catalase).
Diagrams of tooth structure, dental formulas.
Content
Feeding mechanisms, mammalian dentition, enzymes (detailed student notes below).
Teacher Activities
Reviews heterotrophs; shows teeth models, explains dental formula calculation, demonstrates
enzyme action, links teeth to food types.
Learner Activities
Copy segmented notes, count teeth on models, draw tooth diagrams, discuss enzyme in saliva.
Evaluation
State the dental formula for humans. Name two enzyme characteristics.
Assignment
Draw/label a section of a premolar. List three enzymes in digestion with actions.
STUDENTS LESSON NOTE
Nutrition (Continued) & Enzymes
Feeding Mechanisms in Mammals
Feeding mechanisms refer to the ways mammals obtain, process, and swallow food. These
mechanisms are closely related to the type of food the animal eats and include biting, chewing,
swallowing, and digestion.
Mammals have different feeding mechanisms based on their diet.
Feeding Mechanisms Based on Diet
a. Carnivores
Carnivores are animals that feed mainly on flesh of other animals.
Feeding Characteristics:
i. Sharp incisors and long canines for biting and tearing flesh.
ii. Food is swallowed in large chunks
iii. Short alimentary canal because meat is easy to digest
iv. Examples: Lion, tiger, dog, cat
b. Herbivores
Herbivores feed mainly on plants.
Feeding Characteristics:
1. Broad, flat molars for grinding plant materials
2. Reduced or absent canines
 3. Long alimentary canal to digest cellulose
4. Some chew cud (ruminants like cows and goats)
Examples: Cow, goat, sheep, rabbit
c. Omnivores
Omnivores feed on both plants and animals.
Feeding Characteristics:
i. Combination of sharp incisors, moderate canines, and flat molars
ii. Medium-length alimentary canal
iii. Can handle a wide range of foods
Examples: Humans, pigs, monkeys
General Feeding Process in Mammals
Food passes through the digestive system in this order:
Mouth (biting & chewing) → Oesophagus (swallowing) → Stomach (mixing & digestion)
Mammalian Teeth: Types, Structure, and Dental Formula
Teeth are hard, white structures embedded in the jaws used for mechanical digestion, which is
breaking food into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzymes.
Humans have:
 20 milk (temporary) teeth in childhood
 32 permanent teeth in adulthood
Types of Mammalian Teeth and Their Functions
Type of Tooth Number (Adult) Position Function Shape
Incisors 8 (4 upper, 4 Front of jaw Cutting and Flat, chisel-
lower) biting food shaped
Canines 4 (2 upper, 2 Beside incisors Tearing and Long and
lower) piercing pointed
Premolars 8 (4 upper, 4 Behind canines Crushing and Two cusps
lower) grinding (bicuspid)
Molars 12 (6 upper, 6 Back of jaw Grinding food Broad with many
lower) finely cusps
Structure of a Tooth (Longitudinal Section)
Each tooth has distinct parts:
Enamel: This is a hard outer covering, it protects tooth like an armour.
Dentine: This is the bone-like layer beneath enamel; sensitive
Pulp Cavity: It contains nerves and blood vessels and causes pain when exposed.
Cement: It covers the root, it helps anchor tooth to jaw.
Root: It is the embedded part of tooth in jaw bone. There are about 1–3 roots.
Analogy:
A tooth is like an ice cream cone:
Enamel = chocolate coating
Dentine = cone
Pulp cavity = ice cream inside

Diagram to draw: Label enamel, dentine, pulp cavity, cement, root.

Dental Formula
A dental formula is a shorthand method of showing the number and types of teeth in one side of
the upper and lower jaws.
Symbols:
I = Incisors
C = Canines
PM = Premolars
M = Molars
Examples
Human (Omnivore):
Dog (Carnivore):
Goat (Herbivore):
Adaptation of Dentition to Diet
Dentition refers to the type, number, and arrangement of teeth, which are adapted to diet for
survival.
 Carnivores
Long, sharp canines for killing prey
Blade-like carnassial teeth for slicing meat
Short jaw and digestive tract
Example: Cat
 Herbivores
No or reduced canines
Broad molars for grinding cellulose
Long alimentary canal with bacteria for digestion
Example: Cow
 Omnivores
Moderate incisors, canines, and molars
Teeth suitable for both meat and plants
Example: Human
Analogy:
Carnivore teeth = knife
Herbivore teeth = pestle and mortar
Omnivore teeth = Swiss army knife
ENZYMES
Definition
Enzymes are biological catalysts, they are protein substances produced by living cells that speed
up chemical reactions, especially digestion, without being used up.
Characteristics of Enzymes
Specificity: Each enzyme works on only one substrate (lock-and-key model).
Example: Amylase acts only on starch.
Optimum Conditions: Best temperature: 37°C in humans.
Best pH varies (amylase ≈ neutral, pepsin ≈ acidic)
It is Not Used Up: Enzymes can be reused after reactions.
Protein Nature: High temperature or extreme pH denatures enzymes.
Lower Activation Energy: Makes reactions fast at body temperature.
Naming: Most enzymes end with “-ase” (e.g., protease, lipase).
Importance of Enzymes
a. Break down large food molecules into small absorbable units
b. Speed up digestion (hours instead of days)
c. Enable growth, repair, and energy release
Examples:
 i. Salivary amylase: Starch → maltose (mouth)
ii. Pepsin: Protein → peptides (stomach)
iii. Lipase: Fats → fatty acids + glycerol (intestine)
Analogy:
Enzymes are like scissors cutting paper quickly; without enzymes, digestion would be too slow.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
 High temperature
 Extreme pH
 Presence of inhibitors
These factors alter enzyme shape, stopping activity.
Link Between Teeth and Enzymes
Teeth perform mechanical digestion (breaking food)
Enzymes perform chemical digestion (breaking molecules)
Both are necessary for proper nutrition.

Topic: Basic Ecological Concepts

Week: 7
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Define ecology, ecosystem, habitat, and niche, and give suitable examples for each.
 Distinguish between biotic and abiotic components and explain their roles in an ecosystem.
 Describe aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, including the types of organisms and abiotic
factors in each.
 Illustrate interactions between living and non-living parts of an ecosystem using local
examples.
Entry Behaviour
Students can recall basic nutrition concepts from Week 6 and understand that all organisms require
food, water, and suitable environmental conditions to survive.
Instructional Materials (Teaching Aids)
a. Charts showing ecosystem pyramids and food chains
b. Pond water sample and soil sample
c. Pictures of rainforests, deserts, rivers, savannas
d. Local plant or animal specimens (e.g., grasshopper, waterweed, or aquatic insects)
e. Microscope or hand lens for observation
f. Whiteboard and markers
g. Student notebooks
Content
Ecology, ecosystem, habitat, niche, biotic and abiotic components, aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems.
Teacher Activities
a. Opens lesson with questions: “Where do living things live?” and “What do they need to
survive?”
b. Explains concepts using diagrams, charts, and everyday examples.
c. Demonstrates pond and soil samples to show interaction of living and non-living
components.
d. Guides students to observe samples and relate them to ecosystem components.
e. Draws a labelled ecosystem diagram on the board.
f. Uses questioning to check understanding and links examples to local ecosystems.
Learner Activities
a. Listen attentively and ask clarifying questions.
b. Copy detailed notes into notebooks.
c. Observe pond water and soil samples in groups.
d. Draw labelled diagrams of local ecosystems.
e. Discuss habitats, niches, and components of ecosystems using examples from their school
or community.
Evaluation
 Differentiate between habitat and niche with examples.
 List two biotic and two abiotic components of a pond ecosystem.
 Explain one interaction between living and non-living components in a terrestrial
ecosystem.
Assignment
 Describe your school compound as an ecosystem. Identify and list its biotic and abiotic
components.
  Draw a simple labelled diagram of either a pond ecosystem or a savanna ecosystem.
STUDENT LESSON NOTES
Topic: Basic Ecological Concepts
Ecology and Ecosystem
Ecology is the branch of biology that studies how living organisms interact with each other and
with their surroundings. It helps us understand patterns of life, such as why predators hunt certain
prey or why plants fail in a drought.
An ecosystem is a specific area where living organisms (plants, animals, microbes) interact with
one another and with the non-living components of their environment. Every ecosystem functions
like a connected network, where energy flows from the sun to producers (plants), then to
consumers (animals), and finally to decomposers (bacteria and fungi), which recycle nutrients.
Examples of ecosystems:
Small: A tree hollow hosting insects and moss
Medium: A pond with fish, algae, and water snails
Large: A forest with trees, mammals, and soil microbes
Habitat and Niche
 Habitat: The natural home of an organism, providing food, water, shelter, and suitable
conditions for survival. Example: Tilapia lives in freshwater ponds; coconut trees grow
along sandy coastal areas.
 Niche: The role or function of an organism in its habitat, including its food, behavior, and
interactions. Example: Tilapia feed on algae and insects while avoiding predators; coconut
trees provide fruits for birds and stabilize sand dunes with roots.
Analogy: Habitat = neighborhood; Niche = job in the neighborhood.
Biotic and Abiotic Components
Every ecosystem is composed of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components:
Biotic components:
a. Producers (autotrophs): Plants and algae that make food from sunlight (photosynthesis)
b. Consumers (heterotrophs): Animals that eat plants or other animals
c. Primary (herbivores, e.g., grasshoppers)
d. Secondary (carnivores, e.g., lizards)
e. Tertiary (top carnivores, e.g., eagles)
f. Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria that break down dead matter and recycle nutrients
Abiotic components:
Sunlight, water, temperature, soil, air, wind, and pH
Influence the growth, survival, and reproduction of living organisms
Example of interaction: Plants (biotic) require sunlight and water (abiotic) to grow; herbivores
consume plants, while decomposers return nutrients to soil.
Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems (water-based) cover about 70% of the Earth:
a. Freshwater: Rivers, lakes, ponds. Low salt content.
 Producers: Algae, water lilies
 Consumers: Fish, frogs
 Abiotic: Flowing water, dissolved oxygen
b. Marine Water: Oceans, seas. High salt content.
 Producers: Phytoplankton
 Consumers: Sharks, whales
 Abiotic: Salinity, tides, waves
Terrestrial ecosystems (land-based) are diverse:
1. Forest: Dense trees and shrubs
 Producers: Mahogany, grasses
 Consumers: Monkeys, lions
 Abiotic: Rain, temperature, shade
2. Desert: Sparse plants (cacti)
 Consumers: Camels, lizards
 Abiotic: Extreme heat, low rainfall
3. Grassland/Savanna: Dominated by grasses
 Example: Nigerian guinea savanna
 Abiotic: Soil type, rainfall
Comparison Table:
Feature Aquatic Terrestrial
Medium Water Air/soil
Producers Algae/phytoplankton Trees/grasses
Support Buoyancy Roots/stems
Oxygen Dissolved Atmospheric

Diagram Example: Pond Ecosystem

(Sun → Algae → Tadpole → Frog → Soil bacteria; label sunlight, water, soil, and organisms)

Understanding basic ecological concepts is essential for appreciating how organisms survive,
grow, and interact. Biotic and abiotic components are interdependent, and changes in one
component can affect the entire ecosystem. Observing local ecosystems, like1 school compound or
a pond nearby, helps visualize these interactions.

Topic: Biomes and Population Studies

Week: 8
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Describe Nigerian and world biomes, their characteristics, and locations.
  Explain population size, population density, dominance, and the factors that affect
population growth.
 Relate biomes to population distribution and explain the effects of environmental factors
on species abundance.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall basic ecological concepts from Week 7, including ecosystems, habitat, and
biotic/abiotic components. They can identify local plants and animals and understand interactions
in their surroundings.
Instructional Materials (Teaching Aids)
 Map of Nigerian biomes
 World biome chart
 Graph paper for population curves
 Local plant or animal specimens (e.g., grasshopper, waterweed)
 Whiteboard and markers
 Student notebooks
Content
 Nigerian biomes
 World biomes
 Population parameters: size, density, dominance
 Factors affecting population growth
 Population growth curves and phases
Teacher Activities
a. Draws Nigerian biome map on the board, showing rainfall and vegetation distribution.
b. Explains characteristics of each Nigerian and world biome with examples.
c. Discusses population concepts: size, density, and dominance, using local examples.
d. Draws and explains population S-curve graph, showing growth phases.
e. Encourages questions and relates biomes to human and animal population patterns.
Learner Activities
a. Copy detailed notes into notebooks.
b. Observe and discuss local examples of biomes.
c. Sketch labelled Nigerian biome map.
d. Plot sample population growth curve on graph paper.
e. Participate in class discussions on population fluctuations and environmental impacts.
Evaluation
a. Name two Nigerian biomes and describe one feature each.
b. List three factors that can affect population growth.
c. Differentiate between population size and population density with examples.
Assignment
Mark four Nigerian biomes on an outline map.
Explain why the population of lions is low in dense forests compared to savannas.
STUDENT LESSON NOTES
Nigerian Biomes
Nigeria’s climate varies from humid south to arid north, creating five major biomes based on
rainfall, temperature, and vegetation. Each biome supports specific plants, animals, and human
activities.
1. Mangrove Swamp (Coastal Biome)
Location: Lagos to Calabar (Niger Delta)
Rainfall: Over 2500 mm; salty water from tides
Vegetation: Tall mangrove trees with prop roots
Animals: Crabs, snakes, periwinkles, fish nurseries
Human Use: Fishing, oyster farming; threatened by oil pollution
2. Tropical Rainforest
Location: Southern Nigeria (Cross River, Ondo, Ogun)
Rainfall: 2000–4000 mm; Hot (~27°C)
Vegetation: Layered – emergent trees (mahogany, iroko), shrubs, climbers (lianas)
Wildlife: Monkeys, parrots, leopards, insects
Human Use: Timber, cocoa farming; logging reduces canopy
3. Guinea Savanna (Derived/Grassland)
Location: Middle belt (Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Plateau)
Rainfall: 1000–1500 mm
Vegetation: Tall grasses (up to 3m) and scattered trees (locust bean, sheanut)
Wildlife: Lions, antelopes, elephants
Human Use: Crop farming (yam, maize), cattle rearing
4. Sudan Savanna
Location: Northern Nigeria (Kano, Sokoto, Katsina)
Rainfall: 500–1000 mm; 8 months dry season
Vegetation: Short grasses, thorny acacia, baobab trees
Wildlife: Gazelles, ostriches, nomadic cattle
Human Use: Groundnuts, millet; nomadic Fulani herders
5. Sahel Savanna (Semi-Desert)
Location: Extreme north (Borno, Yobe)
Rainfall: Less than 500 mm; prone to drought
Vegetation: Sparse shrubs, tough grasses
Wildlife: Camels, goats
Human Use: Millet farming; desertification challenge

World Biomes
Global biomes are large ecosystems shaped by climate (rainfall and temperature).
1. Tropical Rainforest: Amazon, Congo; wettest, most diverse (~3 million species)
2. Savanna: East Africa; grasses + scattered trees; wildebeest migration
3. Desert: Sahara, Kalahari; <250 mm rain; cacti, camels; nocturnal animals
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest: UK, USA; four seasons; oak/maple trees shed leaves
5. Taiga (Boreal Forest): Canada, Russia; cold; conifers; moose, wolves
6. Tundra: Arctic; frozen soil; mosses, lichens; polar bears migrate
7. Grassland (Prairies): North America; wheat farms; bison/buffalo

Population Concepts

 Population Size: Total number of individuals of a species in a given area.

Example: 10,000 termites in a colony
 Population Density: Number of individuals per unit area or volume.
Formula: Density = Total individuals ÷ Area. Example: 500 fish/km² in a pond
 Population Dominance: Species with highest numbers or greatest influence in an
ecosystem. Example: Elephants in savanna (create water holes, affect vegetation)
Factors Affecting Population
1. Biotic Factors (Living Influences):

a. Food availability: Abundant food = growth; scarcity = death

b. Predation: Predators reduce prey numbers
c. Competition: Same species (intraspecific) or different species (interspecific)
d. Reproduction rate: Higher birth than death = population increase
e. Disease/parasites: Spread faster in crowded populations

2. Abiotic Factors (Non-Living Influences):

a. Climate: Rainfall, temperature affect plants → herbivores → carnivores

b. Space and shelter: Overcrowding stresses populations
c. Human activity: Farming, poaching, pollution reduce population

Population Growth Phases (S-Curve)

Lag Phase: Slow start, few individuals
Exponential (Log) Phase: Rapid growth, abundant resources
Stationary Phase: Growth slows, carrying capacity reached
Decline Phase: Population decreases, resources exhausted

Example: In savannas, dry season kills grasses → antelope starve → lions decline. Conservation
parks help stabilize populations.

Diagram: Nigeria Biomes (North-South Strip)

Mangrove → Rainforest → Guinea Savanna → Sudan → Sahel
Label rainfall decreasing from south to north

Population S-Curve Graph:

X-axis: Time
Y-axis: Number of individuals
Show: Lag → exponential → stationary → decline
Understanding biomes and population dynamics explains species distribution and abundance.
Local and global examples show that environment, resources, and human activity affect
population size and ecosystem balance. Observing local biomes helps connect theory to real-life
ecosystems.

Topic: Ecological Factors and Soil

Week: 9
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
a. Explain terrestrial and aquatic ecological factors with clear examples.
b. Describe major soil types, their properties, and water-holding capacity.
 c. Outline simple methods for measuring ecological factors in the field.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall biomes and population concepts from Week 8, understanding that ecosystems are
made of living and non-living components interacting continuously.
Instructional Materials (Teaching Aids)
a. Soil samples: clay, sand, loam
b. Funnel and filter paper (for water percolation tests)
c. Thermometer, pH paper
d. Rain gauge, simple quadrat frame (string square)
e. Hand lens, student notebooks
f. Whiteboard and markers
Content
Terrestrial and aquatic ecological factors
Soil types and properties
Water-holding capacity of soils
Measurement methods of ecological factors
Teacher Activities
a. Reviews Week 8: ecosystems, biotic and abiotic components
b. Explains terrestrial and aquatic factors with examples
c. Demonstrates soil texture, percolation, and water-holding tests
d. Shows field measurement tools (thermometers, pH paper, quadrats)
e. Relates local soil and ecological examples (e.g., Nigerian farm soil, pond)
Learner Activities
 Copy detailed notes into notebooks
 Perform simple soil tests in groups (percolation, texture, pH)
 Record observations of soil and environmental factors
 Draw labelled soil profile diagram
 Participate in discussions about ecological factors affecting organisms
Evaluation
a. List two terrestrial and two aquatic ecological factors.
b. Explain why clay soil retains more water than sand.
c. Identify one tool for measuring each of temperature, pH, and population density.
Assignment
Collect soil samples from home or garden. Test and report:
Soil type
Water-holding capacity
Observe local ecological factors (e.g., light, moisture, temperature) and record in a table.

STUDENT LESSON NOTES

Terrestrial Ecological Factors
Terrestrial ecological factors influence organisms living on land, determining which plants and
animals survive in different habitats.
Abiotic (Non-Living) Factors:
a. Temperature: Deserts can reach 50°C (camels survive); mountains are cold (few species).
Temperature affects enzyme activity, reproduction, and survival.
 b. Rainfall: Rainforests (2000mm+) support lush vegetation; savanna (1000mm) supports
grasses; deserts (<250mm) sparse plants.
c. Wind: Strong winds can dry soil, break weak stems, disperse seeds.
d. Light Intensity: Forest floor dark (shade-tolerant plants); open fields bright (sun-loving
plants like sunflowers).
e. Soil type and pH: Acidic soils favor pine trees; alkaline soils favor grasslands.
Edaphic Factors (Soil-Related):
a. Soil Texture: Sand drains quickly, clay holds water but poorly aerated, loam ideal for
farming.
b. Soil Fertility: Nutrient content (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) affects plant growth.
Biotic (Living) Factors:
1. Competition: Plants compete for light; animals for food or mates.
2. Predation: Hawks eat rodents; snakes eat frogs.
3. Symbiosis: Ants protect acacia trees in exchange for shelter/nectar.
Aquatic Ecological Factors
Water ecosystems (ponds, rivers, oceans) are shaped by factors that differ from land. Buoyancy
allows support for heavy organisms.
Abiotic Factors:
1. Water Current/Flow: Fast rivers favor streamlined fish (trout); still ponds support
floating lilies.
2. Transparency / Light Penetration: Clear water allows photosynthesis deeper (coral
reefs); muddy water limits plants to surface.
3. Turbidity (Cloudiness): Silt blocks light, reducing plant growth.
4. Dissolved Oxygen: High in waterfalls → active fish; low in swamps → few
animals.
5. Salinity: Marine (≈35 ppt, sharks); freshwater (<0.5 ppt, tilapia).
6. Temperature: Tropical seas warm → corals thrive; polar seas cold → fewer species.
7. pH: Acidic water from pollution harms eggs and young aquatic animals.
Biotic Factors:
Food chains (phytoplankton → zooplankton → fish)
Overpopulation may deplete oxygen → fish die
Comparison Table:
Factor Terrestrial Example Aquatic Example
Temperature Desert heat Pond stratification
Moisture Rainfall Water availability
Oxygen Air (21%) Dissolved O₂

Soil Types and Properties

Soil is the top layer of Earth where plants root and obtain nutrients. Nigerian soils vary depending
on region (coastal, tropical, savanna, desert).
Major Soil Types:
 Sandy Soil: Large particles, drains fast, low nutrients, feels gritty, suitable for carrots.
 Clay Soil: Fine particles, high water/nutrient retention, poor drainage, sticky when wet,
ideal for rice paddies.
 Loam Soil: Balanced mix of sand, silt, clay (≈[Link]), crumbly, best for crops.
 Laterite: Red, iron-rich, common in tropical Nigeria; hard when dry.
Properties to Observe:
 Texture: Gritty, sticky, or crumbly
 Structure: Crumb/clod size affects aeration and root growth
 Porosity: Air spaces for oxygen
 pH: Acidic (<7), alkaline (>7), neutral (~6.5–7 best)
 Fertility: Organic matter, mineral nutrients (NPK)
Soil Profile Layers
 Topsoil (A): Dark, fertile, full of roots and organisms
 Subsoil (B): Minerals leached down
 Parent Rock ©: Weathered rock pieces
 Bedrock ®: Solid rock below
Water-Holding Capacity of Soil: The water-holding capacity is the amount of water a soil retains
for plants. It affects agriculture and plant survival.
Soil Type Water Retention Notes
Sand Low (20–30%) Drains fast; plants may dry
quickly
Clay High (60–80%) Holds water; may cause root
suffocation if too wet
Loam Moderate (40–50%) Ideal: holds water and drains
excess
Simple Test: Place dry soil in funnel, pour equal water, measure drainage time. Slower drainage =
higher capacity.
Measurement of Ecological Factors
Field biologists use simple tools to measure environmental factors:
1. Temperature: Thermometer (°C), max/min types
2. Rainfall: Rain gauge (mm of water collected)
3. Light Intensity: Light meter (lux)
4. Humidity: Wet/dry bulb hygrometer (% relative humidity)
5. Wind: Anemometer (speed), wind vane (direction)
6. Soil pH: pH paper or electronic meter (scale 1–14)
7. Population: Quadrat (plants per m²), sweep nets (insects), Lincoln index (mark-
recapture animals)
Example: In a Nigerian savanna
Quadrats are used to estimate grass cover (%)
Termite mounds are counted for population density
Soil pH are measured for crop advice
These factors explain ecological patterns: mangroves tolerate salty water, desert plants survive low
moisture, and pond algae bloom with nutrients.
Conclusion:
Terrestrial and aquatic ecological factors, soil type, and water-holding capacity determine the
survival, distribution, and growth of organisms. Field measurement allows accurate monitoring
and management of ecosystems.

Topic: Energy Relationships in Ecosystem

Week: 10
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
 Explain the roles of producers, consumers, and decomposers in ecosystems.
 Draw and explain food chains, food webs, and energy flow in ecosystems.
 Describe nutrient cycles (carbon, nitrogen, water) and their importance for ecosystem
stability.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall ecological factors and soil properties from Week 9, understanding interactions
between biotic and abiotic components in different habitats.
Instructional Materials (Teaching Aids)
 Charts of food chains, food webs, and energy pyramids
 Diagram of Nigerian savanna ecosystem
 String or yarn for food web demonstration
 Carbon and nitrogen cycle posters
 Whiteboard and markers
Content
Producers, consumers, decomposers
Food chains and food webs
Energy flow (10% rule, pyramids)
Nutrient cycles: carbon, nitrogen, water
Teacher Activities
 Reviews ecosystem components from Week 7 and ecological factors from Week 9
 Demonstrates a food web with yarn (pull one organism’s thread → entire web shakes)
 Draws energy pyramids, explains 10% energy transfer rule
 Explains nutrient cycles using posters and real examples
Learner Activities
 Copy detailed notes into notebooks
 Construct local food chains and food webs (school garden, farm, or backyard)
 Draw labelled energy pyramids
 Participate in yarn web activity to understand interdependence
Evaluation
 Draw a food chain with at least four organisms showing energy flow.
 State two differences between a food chain and a food web.
 Explain why tertiary consumers are few in number.
Assignment
 Construct a food web for your local environment (school garden or backyard).
 Explain why top predators are less numerous than herbivores in your food web.
STUDENT LESSON NOTES: Energy Relationships in Ecosystem
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers
Energy in ecosystems comes from the sun and flows through living organisms in a structured path.
Organisms are grouped by how they obtain and transfer energy:
Producers (Autotrophs)
Green plants and algae capture sunlight through photosynthesis.
They convert CO₂ + water → glucose + O₂.
They form the base of all ecosystems by creating energy-rich food.
Examples: Savanna grasses, maize plants, phytoplankton.
Consumers (Heterotrophs)
They cannot produce their own food, they obtain energy by eating others.
Primary consumers (herbivores): They eat plants (grasshoppers, cattle, rabbits).
Secondary consumers (carnivores): They eat herbivores (frogs eat insects, lizards eat
grasshoppers).
Tertiary consumers (top predators): They eat secondary consumers (eagles, lions, humans).
Decomposers (Saprotrophs)
Bacteria and fungi break down dead plants, animals, and waste.
Return nutrients to soil for producers.
Examples: Mushrooms on fallen logs, soil bacteria decomposing cow dung.
Food Chain and Food Web
A food chain shows a single path of energy transfer through feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
It always begins with a producer and ends with decomposers. The arrows point from food to
feeder, showing energy direction. A simple Nigerian savanna food chain is: Grass → Grasshopper
→ Toad → Hawk → Bacteria.
In reality, most ecosystems have many overlapping food chains forming a complex food web. This
creates stability because if one food chain breaks, alternative paths exist. For example,
grasshoppers might be eaten by both toads and birds, while birds might also eat caterpillars from
the same grass. In a guinea savanna food web, acacia trees feed both antelopes and elephants,
which are then hunted by both lions and hyenas.
Differences between Food Chain and Food Web
Food Chain Food Web
Single path Interconnected network
Less stable More stable
Simplifies relationships Shows reality

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy flows one-way: Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers.
Energy is lost as heat at each step; it cannot be recycled.
10% Rule: Only ~10% of energy passes to the next trophic level; ~90% lost via respiration, heat,
and movement.
Energy Pyramid Example (kJ/m²/year):
Producers (grass): 10,000 units
Primary consumers (grasshoppers): 1,000 units
Secondary consumers (lizards): 100 units
Tertiary consumers (hawks): 10 units
Types of Energy Pyramids
Number Pyramid: It shows total numbers of organisms per level
Biomass Pyramid: It shows total mass per level
Energy Pyramid: It is always upright and energy decreases at higher levels
Explains why ecosystems have many herbivores but few top predators.
Nutrient Cycles: Nutrients, unlike energy, are continuously recycled in nature. This recycling
maintains ecosystem balance and ensures continuous productivity of living organisms.
Types of Nutrient Cycles
Carbon Cycle: The carbon cycle describes how carbon moves through living and non-living
components of the ecosystem. Green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. Herbivores eat plants and release carbon dioxide during respiration. Carnivores eat
herbivores and also respire carbon dioxide. Decomposers break down dead plants and animals,
releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Human activities such as burning fossil fuels
and deforestation add extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle: The nitrogen cycle explains how nitrogen is converted into usable forms for
living organisms. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and lightning convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates
in the soil. Plants absorb these nitrates to form proteins. Animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants
or other animals. Decomposers return nitrogen compounds to the soil when organisms die.
Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas, returning it to the atmosphere.
Water Cycle: The water cycle involves the continuous movement of water between the earth and
the atmosphere. Water evaporates from rivers, lakes, and oceans, condenses to form clouds, falls
as precipitation, is absorbed by the soil and organisms, and is released back into the atmosphere
through transpiration in plants
Importance of Nutrient Cycles
a. It prevents the depletion of essential nutrients in the ecosystem.
b. It maintains soil fertility.
c. It supports continuous plant growth.
d. It improves soil nitrogen content through practices such as crop rotation using
legumes, especially in Nigerian farmland.
Diagrams to Draw
Simple Food Chain:
Sunlight → Grass → Antelope → Lion → Vulture → Bacteria
Energy Pyramid:
10 kJ (Tertiary)
100 kJ (Secondary)
1,000 kJ (Primary)
10,000 kJ (Producers)
Shows ecosystem balance: removing one component (e.g., overhunting lions) disrupts populations
and energy flow.
Practice: Use 5 local organisms to construct a food web (school garden, backyard, or farm).

Topic: Energy Transformation in Nature

Week: 11
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Explain how energy flows through ecosystems.
 Draw and interpret pyramids of numbers and pyramids of energy.
 Describe why energy is lost at each feeding level and its ecological significance.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall producers, consumers, decomposers, food chains, and food webs from Week 10.
Instructional Materials (Teaching Aids)
 Graph paper, rulers, colored pencils
 Large pyramid diagrams
 Charts of Nigerian pond and savanna ecosystems
Content
 Energy flow principles
 Pyramid of numbers
 Pyramid of energy
 Energy loss mechanisms
Teacher Activities
1. Reviews 10% energy transfer rule from Week 10
2. Demonstrates drawing pyramids on board using local ecosystem examples
3. Guides calculations of energy loss between trophic levels
Learner Activities
1. Copy explanatory notes
2. Construct pyramids from provided data
3. Calculate percentage energy transfers between trophic levels
Evaluation
1. Why is the pyramid of energy always upright?
2. List three ways ecosystems lose energy.
Assignment
Draw a pyramid of numbers and a pyramid of energy using this data:
Grass: 10,000 organisms
Grasshoppers: 1,000
Toads: 100
Snakes: 10
STUDENT LESSON NOTES: Energy Transformation in Nature
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Energy enters ecosystems from sunlight and moves through organisms in feeding relationships
called trophic levels. This flow follows one direction only: sunlight transforms into chemical
energy in plants, then passes to animals, and finally becomes heat that cannot be used again. The
process begins when green plants capture sunlight through photosynthesis, changing radiant
energy into chemical energy stored as glucose in leaves and stems.
This chemical energy transfers when herbivores eat plants, becoming kinetic energy for movement
and growth in animals. At every feeding step, some energy changes into heat through respiration,
movement, and waste production. In a Nigerian pond ecosystem, sunlight powers water lily
growth, which feeds water snails, which become food for fish, which are eaten by herons. Each
step loses most energy, so herons receive only a tiny fraction of the original sunlight energy.
Pyramid of Numbers
A pyramid of numbers shows the number of individual organisms at each trophic level in a
specific ecosystem area, usually one square meter. The pyramid shape reflects natural population
patterns where more organisms exist at lower feeding levels than higher ones.
In a typical grassland ecosystem, thousands of grass plants support hundreds of grasshoppers,
which feed dozens of lizards, which sustain just a few hawks. This creates an upright pyramid with
a broad base of producers and narrow top of predators. However, some ecosystems show inverted
pyramids when few large producers support many small consumers. A single mango tree in a
Nigerian compound might support thousands of insects eating its leaves, creating an inverted
shape because the tree continuously produces new leaves while insects eat rapidly.
The pyramid helps biologists understand population balance. If grass numbers drop due to
drought, grasshopper numbers decline next season, followed by fewer lizards, showing how
changes at one level affect the entire system.
Pyramid of Energy
Unlike numbers, the pyramid of energy always has an upright shape because it measures actual
energy content at each level, recorded as kilojoules per square meter per year. Energy decreases
dramatically going up food chains due to losses at every transfer.
Only about 10% of energy moves from one trophic level to the next while 90% becomes
unavailable through respiration, undigested waste, and heat. A typical pyramid shows producers
capturing 10,000 kJ of sunlight energy, primary consumers receiving 1,000 kJ, secondary
consumers getting 100 kJ, and top predators surviving on just 10 kJ. This precise measurement
explains why ecosystems cannot support endless feeding levels—energy becomes too scarce.
In Nigerian savanna, grasses capture thousands of kilojoules from sunlight across wide areas,
antelopes convert about 10% into movement and growth, lions receive 1% for hunting, and
vultures survive on 0.1% from remains. The pyramid shape remains upright regardless of
ecosystem type because physics dictates energy loss.
Energy Loss in Ecosystems
Ecosystems lose energy at every feeding transfer through four main processes that make most
energy unusable for other organisms.
First, animals use 50-70% of consumed energy for respiration to power daily activities like
movement, digestion, heartbeat, and maintaining body temperature. A grasshopper hopping across
a field burns most grass energy as heat rather than storing it for predators.
Second, 20-30% passes through as indigestible waste like feces, urine, and shed skin, unavailable
until decomposers slowly break it down.
Third, 10-20% remains in indigestible structures such as plant cellulose, animal bones, feathers, or
exoskeletons that resist quick decay.
Finally, all metabolic processes release heat energy that radiates into the atmosphere, becoming
unusable for other organisms. These losses explain why a single lion indirectly requires thousands
of square meters of grassland and hundreds of antelopes yearly. The 10% transfer rule limits food
chains to four or five levels maximum, beyond this, insufficient energy supports no organisms.
Comparison of Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid Shape
What It Shows Units
Type Possibilities
Individual count Upright or
Numbers Organisms/m²
per level Inverted
Energy flow per Always
Energy kJ/m²/year
year Upright
Usually
Biomass Total living mass g/m²
Upright
Drawing Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers
 Level IV: 2 Herons
Level III: 20 Fish
Level II: 200 Snails
Level I: 20,000 Algae

Pyramid of Energy (units = kJ/m²/year):

1 kJ (Hawks)
10 kJ (Lizards)
100 kJ (Insects )
1,000 kJ (Grass )

Energy transformation reveals why ecosystems need constant sunlight input and vast plant
coverage. Nigerian farmers protect soil from erosion to maintain grass cover, ensuring cattle and
wildlife survival. Removing one level through overhunting or herbicide use collapses the energy
pyramid, affecting everyone above it.

Topic: Reproduction
Week: 12
Duration: 40 minutes
Date:
Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Differentiate clearly between asexual and sexual reproduction with examples from plants
and animals.
 Explain mitosis and state its roles in growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
 Explain meiosis and its importance in sexual reproduction and genetic variation.
Entry Behaviour
Students recall:
Cell structure
Nucleus and chromosomes
Instructional Materials (Teaching Aids)
Charts showing types of reproduction
Diagrams of mitosis and meiosis
Onion root tip slides (for mitosis)
Microscope
Chalkboard illustrations
Content
Asexual reproduction (plants and animals)
Sexual reproduction
Mitosis and growth
Meiosis and variation
Teacher Activities
Revises meaning of reproduction
Explains and illustrates asexual reproduction using plant and animal examples
Draws and explains stages of mitosis and meiosis
Compares mitosis and meiosis using a table
Learner Activities
Copy organized notes
Draw and label mitosis and meiosis stages
Identify reproduction types from given examples
Observe onion root tip slide (where available)
Evaluation
State three methods of asexual reproduction.
Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis (two points).
Assignment
Draw and label the stages of mitosis.
Write short notes on why sexual reproduction leads to variation among offspring.
STUDENT LESSON NOTES: REPRODUCTION
Meaning of Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms produce new individuals of their
own kind. It ensures continuity of life and prevents extinction of species.
There are two major types of reproduction:
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which only one parent organism is involved in
producing new individuals.
In this type of reproduction, no male or female gametes are formed or joined.
The offspring produced are exact copies of the parent, meaning they look the same and have the
same characteristics. These identical offspring are called clones.
Key Features of Asexual Reproduction
a. Involves one parent only
b. No fertilization takes place
c. No gametes (sperm or egg) are involved
 d. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent
e. Reproduction is usually fast
f. Common in plants, simple animals, and micro-organisms
Why Organisms Use Asexual Reproduction
a. Many organisms use asexual reproduction because:
b. It allows them to increase in number quickly
c. They do not need to search for a mate
d. It helps them survive in stable environments
Types of Asexual Reproduction
a. Vegetative Propagation (in Plants)
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants where new plants grow from
parts of the parent plant, not from seeds.
Examples:
Runners: Strawberry plants produce horizontal stems that grow into new plants.
Tubers: Yam and potato grow new plants from swollen underground stems.
Bulbs: Onion produces new plants from bulbs.
Cuttings: Rose or cassava stems planted in soil grow into new plants.
NB: The new plant has the same features as the parent plant.
b. Budding (animal)
In budding, a small outgrowth (bud) forms on the body of the parent organism.
The bud grows, develops, and may:
Break off to live independently, or remain attached to form a colony.
Examples:
Hydra
Yeast
c. Binary Fission (animal)
Binary fission occurs when a single-celled organism divides into two equal parts, each becoming a
new individual. Here the nucleus divides and the cell splits into two.
Examples:
Amoeba
Bacteria
This method is very rapid, which is why bacteria multiply quickly.
d. Fragmentation (In plants)
In fragmentation, the body of an organism breaks into parts, and each part grows into a complete
new organism.
Examples:
Starfish (an arm can grow into a new starfish)
Planaria
e. Spore Formation (In plants)
Some plants and fungi produce tiny reproductive cells called spores.
Spores are very light, spread by wind or water. They are able to survive harsh conditions
When conditions are favorable, spores grow into new organisms.
Examples:
Ferns, Mushrooms, Moulds.
Advantages of Asexual Reproduction
a. Only one parent is needed
b. Fast reproduction
 c. Large numbers can be produced in a short time
d. Useful for farmers to maintain desirable plant traits
Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction
a. No genetic variation
b. All offspring are affected if: Disease occurs, Environment changes suddenly
c. Less ability to adapt to new conditions
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion of male and female gametes during
fertilization. It produces offspring that are genetically different from the parents.
Sexual reproduction is slower but produces variation, which increases survival chances.
Processes Involved in Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two major types of cell division:
Meiosis – for formation of gametes
Mitosis – for growth and development after fertilization
Mitosis and Growth
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one parent cell divides to produce two identical daughter
cells, each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
It occurs in body (somatic) cells, not sex cells.
Importance of Mitosis
a. Growth of multicellular organisms
b. Repair of damaged tissues
c. Replacement of worn-out cells (skin, blood cells)
d. Basis of asexual reproduction
Stages of Mitosis (PMAT)
 Prophase
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
Nuclear membrane disappears
Spindle fibres form
 Metaphase
Chromosomes line up at the equator
Spindle fibres attach to centromeres
 Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate
Move to opposite poles
 Telophase
Nuclear membranes reform
Chromosomes unwind
 Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides
Two identical daughter cells formed
Result: Two diploid cells with same chromosome number (46 in humans)
Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four daughter cells, each with half the chromosome
number of the parent cell.
It occurs in reproductive organs to form gametes.
Importance of Meiosis
a. Produces haploid gametes
 b. Maintains constant chromosome number after fertilization
c. Introduces genetic variation through crossing over
d. Essential for sexual reproduction and evolution
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in Body cells Sex organs
Number of divisions One Two
Daughter cells Two Four
Chromosome number Same as parent Half of parent
Genetic makeup Identical Different
Role Growth and repair Sexual reproduction
Importance of Both Types of Reproduction
Mitosis allows organisms to grow, heal, and maintain tissues.
Sexual reproduction introduces variation, helping organisms survive changing environments.
Reproduction ensures survival of species. While asexual reproduction is fast and efficient, sexual
reproduction promotes variation and adaptation. Together, mitosis and meiosis sustain life across
generations.

SS1 Biology End-of-Term WAEC

Standard Examination
Class: SS1 Senior Secondary 1
Subject: Biology
Examination: End-of-Term Weeks 1 12
Total Marks: 60
Time Allowed: 1 Hour 30 Minutes
Instructions:
Answer ALL 30 Objective questions 30 marks). Shade answers on answer sheet.
Answer ANY 3 Theory questions 10 marks each = 30 marks).
Diagrams must be large, clear, and fully labelled.
Write legibly in blue/black ink.
SECTION A OBJECTIVE
QUESTIONS 30 MARKS
Answer ALL questions. Each question carries 1 mark.
1. The movement of water molecules from higher concentration to lower across a
semipermeable membrane is called
A. diffusion B. osmosis C. active transport D. plasmolysis
2. Which process requires energy to move substances against concentration gradient?
A. osmosis B. diffusion C. active transport D. haemolysis
The human skeleton is divided into
A. axial and appendicular B. thoracic and lumbar C. cranial and facial D. pectoral and pelvic
Which tissue provides flexible support in young plant stems?
A. parenchyma B. collenchyma C. sclerenchyma D. xylem
Kwashiorkor results from deficiency of
A. vitamin C B. protein C. iron D. calcium
The dental formula for humans is
A. [Link]/[Link] B. [Link]/[Link] C. [Link]/[Link] D. [Link]/[Link]
An enzyme that works best at pH 2 is
A. salivary amylase B. pepsin C. lipase D. maltase
The study of organisms and their interactions with environment is
A. ecology B. ecosystem C. habitat D. population
Which Nigerian biome receives less than 500mm rainfall annually?
A. rainforest B. mangrove C. sahel savanna D. guinea savanna
Energy transfer between trophic levels is approximately
A. 90% B. 50% C. 10% D. 1%
The first phase of mitosis where chromosomes become visible is
A. prophase B. metaphase C. anaphase D. telophase
Which soil type has highest water-holding capacity?
A. sandy B. loam C. clay D. laterite
Omnivores have
A. sharp canines only B. mixed teeth types C. flat molars only D. no premolars
Pyramid of energy is always
A. inverted B. spindle-shaped C. upright D. variable
Turgidity in plants results from
A. plasmolysis B. osmosis C. active transport D. diffusion
Which bone protects the brain?
A. ribs B. vertebral column C. cranium D. sternum
Decomposers belong to
A. producers B. consumers C. biotic component D. abiotic component
The hardest substance in a tooth is
A. dentine B. pulp C. enamel D. cement
Population density measures
A. total individuals B. individuals per area C. species dominance D. growth rate
Which vitamin deficiency causes night blindness?
A. vitamin A B. vitamin C C. vitamin D D. vitamin B
Collenchyma cells have thickened walls at
A. corners B. uniformly C. center D. ends
The human vertebral column has
A. 26 vertebrae B. 33 vertebrae C. 12 vertebrae D. 7 vertebrae
Roughages are mainly
A. carbohydrates B. cellulose C. proteins D. fats
 Food web is more stable than food chain because
A. more complex B. simpler C. linear D. single path
Gametes contain
A. 46 chromosomes B. 23 chromosomes C. 92 chromosomes D. variable number
Which ecological instrument measures rainfall?
A. thermometer B. rain gauge C. anemometer D. hygrometer
Binary fission is a form of
A. sexual reproduction B. asexual reproduction C. mitosis D. meiosis
The longest bone in human body is
A. humerus B. femur C. tibia D. fibula
Energy loss in ecosystems occurs mainly through A.
photosynthesis B. respiration C. absorption D. conduction
Which Nigerian biome has mangrove trees?
A. sahel savanna B. rainforest C. mangrove swamp D. guinea savanna
SECTION B THEORY QUESTIONS
ANSWER ANY 3 30 MARKS
Question 1 10 marks)
LIFE APPLIED QUESTION
During the dry season in your guinea savanna community, farmers noticed grasshoppers dying and
cattle becoming weak. Some lions were also seen moving to other areas.
a) Using ecological principles, explain this observation showing energy relationships. 4 marks)
b) Draw a pyramid of energy for this situation. 3 marks)
c) Suggest two ways farmers can help maintain the ecosystem balance. 3 marks)
Question 2 10 marks)
a) Draw and label a diagram of a plant cell undergoing plasmolysis. 4 marks)
b) Explain the differences between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions using red blood
cells as examples. 6 marks)
Question 3 10 marks)
LIFE APPLIED QUESTION
A student prepared yam tubers for planting but noticed some were soft and watery while others
remained firm.
a) Explain why yam tubers need firm texture for survival, relating to plant supporting tissues. 4
marks)
b) Describe the structure and location of TWO supporting tissues in yam stems. 4 marks)
c) State two advantages of vegetative propagation using yam tubers. 2 marks)
Question 4 10 marks)
a) State the dental formula for humans and calculate total number of teeth. 3 marks)
b) Draw and label the longitudinal section of a premolar tooth. 4 marks)
c) Explain how herbivore dentition differs from carnivore dentition, giving two adaptations each.
3 marks)
Question 5 10 marks)
a) Describe the stages of mitosis in order, starting from prophase. 5 marks)
b) Draw and label the structure of a male gamete (sperm cell). 3 marks)
c) State three differences between mitosis and meiosis. 2 marks)
END OF EXAMINATION
MARKING SCHEME For Teachers Only)
SECTION A 1 mark each = 30 marks
SECTION B Expected Answers:
Q1 Ecosystem collapse: grass (producers) die → grasshoppers starve → cattle decline → lions
migrate. 10% rule, pyramids. Solutions: supplementary feeding, water points, controlled burning.]
Q2 Diagram 4 marks, effects: hypertonic=shrink/crenate, hypotonic=burst/lyse, isotonic=normal.]
Q3 Turgidity/support, collenchyma under epidermis/flexible, sclerenchyma rigid; advantages:
identical, fast.]
Q4 Formula [Link]/[Link] 32 teeth; diagram enamel/dentine/pulp/root; herbivores: wide
molars/long gut, carnivores: sharp canines/carnassials.]
Q5 Prophase→Metaphase→Anaphase→Telophase→Cytokinesis; sperm diagram;
mitosis=identical/diploid/growth, meiosis=variation/haploid/gametes.]
TOTAL 60 MARKS