Calculus Review and Formulas
Keone Hon
Revised 4/29/04
1 Functions
1.1 Definitions
Definition 1 (Function) A function is a rule or set of rules that associates
an input a with exactly one output b.
Definition 2 (Domain) The domain of a function f is the set of values x for
which f (x) is defined.
Definition 3 (Range) The range of a function f is the set of all possible out-
puts f (x).
B Sums, differences, etc. of functions are sometimes abbreviated:
• (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
• (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
• (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
f (x)
• (f /g)(x) = , provided that g(x) 6= 0
g(x)
• (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
• Note: (f ◦ g)(x) is not necessarily equal to (g ◦ f )(x).
Definition 4 (Odd function) A function is odd if for all x in the domain of
f , f (−x) = −f (x). An odd function is symmetric about the origin (0, 0).
Definition 5 (Even function) A function is even if for all x in the domain
of f , f (−x) = f (x). An even function is symmetric about the y=axis.
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Definition 6 (One-to-one function) A function f is one-to-one if, for any
a and b in the domain of f such that a 6= b, then f (a) 6= f (b). In other words,
each output yields a unique input.
• A function is one-to-one if any horizontal line cuts the function at one or
fewer points. (This is called the horizontal line test.)
• If a function is one-to-one, then it has an inverse. This inverse func-
tion, denoted f −1 , is defined as follows: f −1 (y) = x iff f (x) = y. Thus,
f −1 (f (x)) = x
• f −1 is the reflection of f across the line y = x.
Definition 7 (Zero) A zero of a function f is a number x for which f (x) = 0.
Also called the x-intercept of the graph. To find the zeroes of a function f (x),
let f(x) = 0 and solve for x using any methods.
Definition 8 (Polynomial) A polynomial is a function consisting only of pow-
ers of the variable (usually x) multiplied by constant coefficients.
Definition 9 (Rational Function) A rational function is of the form f (x) =
P (x)
, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials. Note that Q(x) 6= 0.
Q(x)
1.2 The Absolute Value Function
The absolute value function f (x) = |x| produces the positive “version” of any
input. For example, |1| = 1 and | − 1| = 1.
The absolute value function may be expressed as follows:
• If x ≥ 0, then f (x) = |x| = x.
• If x < 0, then f (x) = |x| = −x.
B The triangle inequality states that |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
1.3 The Greatest Integer Function
The greatest integer function f (x) = [x] outputs the greatest integer less than
or equal to x. For example, [1.4] = 1, [π] = 3, and [−3.5] = −4.
The greatest integer function may be expressed as follows:
• If x is integral, then f (x) = [x] = x.
• If x = a + b, where 0 < b < 1, then f (x) = [x] = a.
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1.4 Trigonometry
1.4.1 Right-Triangle Definitions
Consider right triangle ABC, where C is the right angle. Then:
BC opposite
sin A = =
AB hypotenuse
AC adjacent
cos A = =
AB hypotenuse
BC opposite
tan(A) = =
AC adjacent
1 AB hypotenuse
csc A = = = opposite
sin A BC
1 AB hypotenuse
sec A = = =
cos A AC adjacent
1 AC adjacent
cot A = = = opposite
tan A BC
One easy way to remember these definitions is to memorize the “word”
SOHCAHTOA, which stands for:
• sin = opposite/hypotenuse
• cos = adjacent/hypotenuse
• tan = opposite/adjacent
1.4.2 Reduction Formulas
1. sin(−x) = − sin x
2. cos(−x) = cos x
3. sin( π2 − x) = cos x
4. cos( π2 − x) = sin x
5. sin( π2 + x) = cos x
6. cos( π2 + x) = − sin x
7. sin(π − x) = sin x
8. cos(π − x) = − cos x
9. sin(π + x) = − sin x
10. cos(π − x) = − cos x
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1.4.3 Identities
1. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
2. tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
3. cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x
1.4.4 Sum and Difference Formulas
1. sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α
2. sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − sin β cos α
3. cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
4. cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
tan α + tan β
5. tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
6. tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
1.4.5 Double- and Half-Angle Formulas
1. sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α
2. cos 2α = cos2 x − sin2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 x
2 tan α
3. tan 2α =
1 − tan2 α
r
α 1 − cos α
4. sin = ± (determine whether it is + or - by finding the
2 2
α
quadrant that lies in)
2
r
α 1 + cos α
5. cos = ± (same as above)
2 2
α 1 − cos α sin α
6. tan = =
2 sin α 1 + cos α
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1.4.6 Other Useful Trig Formulae
(for formulas 3-6, consider the triangle with sides of length a, b, and c, and
opposite angles A, B, and C, respectively)
1 − 2 cos(2α)
1. sin2 α =
2
1 + 2 cos(2α)
2. cos2 α =
2
sin A sin B sin C
3. = = (Law of Sines)
a b c
4. c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C (Law of Cosines)
5. Area of triangle = 12 ab sin C
p a+b+c
6. Area of triangle = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where s = (Heron’s
2
Formula)
1.4.7 Changes to the Trig Graphs
Definition 10 (Periodic) A function f is periodic if, for some number p,
f (x + p) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .
B The trigonometric functions are all periodic.
• sin x, cos x, csc x, and sec x all have periods of 2π.
• tan x and cot x have periods of π.
B If the x in sin x, cos x, etc., is multiplied by a constant b, the period is divided
by that constant:
2π
• sin bx, cos bx, csc bx, and sec bx (b constant) all have periods of b
π
• tan bx and cot bx have periods of b.
Definition 11 (Amplitude) The magnitude of an oscillation (only for func-
tions that oscillate, like the sine and cosine). In the sine and the cosine, the
amplitude is half the distance from the minimum to the maximum value.
B A sin x and A cos x each have amplitude A.
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1.4.8 Inverse Trig Functions
If f (x) = sin x, then
f −1 (x) = sin−1 x = arcsin x, with −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
If f (x) = cos x, then
f −1 (x) = cos−1 x = arccos x, with −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
If f (x) = tan x, then
f −1 (x) = tan−1 x = arctan x, with − π2 ≤ x ≤ π
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1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
1.5.1 Laws of Exponents
1. a0 = 1
2. a1 = a
3. am · an = am+n
4. am ÷ an = am−n
5. (am )n = amn
1
6. a−m =
am
1.5.2 Logarithms
Definition 12 (Logarithm (log)) The logarithm base a of a number is the
power to which a should be raised in order to obtain that number. That is,
y = loga x iff ay = x
Definition 13 (Natural Logarithm (ln)) y = ln x iff ey = x
B Laws of Logarithms (compare to Laws of Exponents)
1. loga 1 = 0
2. loga a = 1
3. loga mn = loga m + loga n
m
4. loga = loga m − loga n
n
5. loga xm = m loga x
1
6. loga x =
logx a
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1.6 Parametric Functions
Definition 14 (Parametric Equations) A set of equations that define sev-
eral variables (usually two) in terms of another variable.
B Parametric equations are often of the form x = f (t) and y = g(t).
B To eliminate the parameter (in this case, t), we often use the identity sin2 t +
cos2 t = 1.
2 Differentiation
Definition 15 (Difference quotient) The fraction f (a+h)−f h
(a)
is the differ-
ence quotient for f at a. It represents the average rate of change from x = a to
x = a + h. As h goes to 0, the average rate of change approaches the instanta-
neous rate of change, which we will define as f 0 (x):
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
If f’(a) exists, then from the above equation, we know that limx→c = f (c).
So if a function is differentiable, the it is continuous. (However, the reverse
is not necessarily true; a function may be continuous at a point but not be
differentiable at that point.
A function is not differentiable at x = a if . . .
1. The graph has a hole (removable discontinuity) at x = a.
2. The graph jumps from one y-value to another (jump discontinuity) at
x = a.
3. x=c is a vertical asymptote (limx→c = ±∞)
4. The graph has a vertical tangent at x = a (f 0 (c) = ±∞)
5. There is a corner at x = a, so there are infinitely many tangents passing
through (x, f (x))
6. There is a cusp at x = a, so there are infinitely many tangents passing
through (x, f (x)).
2.1 The Chain Rule
Theorem 1 (The Chain Rule) To differentiate a compositite function, we
take the derivative of the outside function (treating the insides as a single mass),
and multiply this by the derivative of the inside function:
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(f (g(x)))0 = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x)
Alternate form:
dy dy du
Let y = f (u) and u = g(x). Then = + .
dx du dx
2.2 Basic Differentiation Formulas
da
1. dx =0
d
2. dx ax =a
d n
3. dx x = nxn−1
d d d
4. (f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x)
dx dx dx
d d d
5. f (x)g(x) = g(x) f (x) + f (x) g(x)
dx dx dx
d d
d f (x) g(x) dx f (x) − f (x) dx g(x)
6. = 2
dx g(x) (g(x))
2.3 Trigonometric Differentiation Formulas
d
1. dx sin x = cos x
d
2. dx cos x = − sin x
d
3. dx tan x = sec2 x
d
4. dx csc x = − csc x cot x
d
5. dx sec x = sec x tan x
d
6. dx cot x = − csc2 x
d 1
7. sin−1 x = √
dx 1 − x2
d 1
8. cos−1 x = − √
dx 1 − x2
d 1
9. tan−1 x =
dx 1 + x2
d 1
10. csc−1 x = − √
dx |x| x2 − 1
d 1
11. sec−1 x = √
dx |x| x2 − 1
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d 1
12. cot−1 x = −
dx 1 + x2
2.4 Exponential/Logarithmic Differentiation Formulas
d 1
1. ln x =
dx x
d x
2. dx e = ex
d x
3. dx a = ax ln a
B Logarithmic Differentiation (for derivatives of exponential functions):
y = f (x)
ln y = ln f (x)
d d
ln y = ln f (x)
dx dx
1 dy 1 d
· = · f (x)
y dx f (x) dx
dy 1 d
=y· · f (x)
dx f (x) dx
2.5 Implicit Differentiation
When we do not have an explicit form (y = f (x)) for y, it may be easiest to
differentiate implicitly. This is done by differentiating both sides with respect
dy
to x, and then solving for dx .
2.6 Other Formulae and Theorems
Formula 1 (Derivatives of Parametric Functions) Suppose that x = f (t)
and y = g(t) are differentiable functions of t. Then
dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt
1
(you can remember this by imagining each dt cancelling)
d2 y d dy dt
=( )
dx2 dt dx dx
Formula 2 (Derivative of an Inverse Function) Suppose that f (x) is a one-
to-one function (that is, it has an inverse). Then if f(x) passes through the point
(a, b), its inverse f −1 (x) will pass through the point (b, a). So
1
(f −1 )0 (b) = 0 .
f (a)
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Theorem 2 (The Mean Value Theorem (MVT)) If the function f (x) is
continuous on the interval [a, b] and differentiable on the interval (a, b), then
f (b) − f (a)
there exists at least one number c such that = f 0 (c). (That is, the
b−a
instantaneous rate of change is equal to the average rate of change at some point
on the interval.)
The following is a specific case of the MVT:
Theorem 3 (Rolle’s Theorem) If f (a) = f (b) = 0, then for some c in [a, b],
f 0 (c) = 0.
Theorem 4 (L’Hopital’s Rule) If one of the four is true:
• lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0,
x→a x→a
• lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0,
x→∞ x→∞
• lim f (x) = lim g(x) = ∞, or
x→a x→a
• lim f (x) = lim g(x) = ∞
x→∞ x→∞
then the limit in question is equal to
f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
lim 0 or lim 0 , depending on whether x was approaching a or ∞.
x→a g (x) x→∞ g (x)
L’Hopital’s rule can be applied to certain other indeterminate forms, namely
0 · ∞ and 00 . To apply it to the former, rewrite it as 0 · 10 = 00 . To apply it to
0
the latter, rewrite it as eln(0 ) and apply the laws of logarithms.
2.7 Estimating
It is possible to estimate the value of a derivative at x = a by finding the
difference quotient f (a+h)−f
h
(a)
for small values of h.
Alternatively, it may be desirable to use the symmetric difference quotient
f (a + h) − f (a − h)
to estimate f 0 (a).
2h
3 Applications of Differentiation
3.1 Slope
The value of the derivative of a curve at x = a is the slope of the curve at that
point.
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Definition 16 (Critical Point) A critical point is a point at x = c such that
f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) is undefined. To determine the critical points of a function,
find its derivative, determine which values of x make it undefined, and solve for
f 0 (x) = 0 for the remaining values.
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