501: Linux Operating System [ 2511000905044001]

Unit 1: Introduction to Linux Operating System

1.1 Features of Linux OS

1.2 Components of Linux OS (Hardware, Kernel, Shell, GNU Utilities &
Applications)
1.3 Shell in Linux (Bash, Zsh, Dash – Features and Differences)
1.4 Introduction to Files and File Types in Linux (text, binary, special files)
1.5 Linux Directory Structure and File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS)
What is an Operating System (OS)?
An OS manages hardware and software resources on a computer. It lets you run
applications, manage files, and connect devices like printers or networks.
What is Linux ?
Linux is an open-source operating system (OS) based on Unix. It's widely used
on servers, desktops, smartphones (like Android), embedded systems, and even
supercomputers.

Key Features of Linux:

1. Open-source: The source code is freely available for anyone to view,

modify, and distribute.
2. Free to use: Most Linux distributions (called "distros") are free to
download and use.
3. Secure and Stable: Known for its stability and strong security features.
4. Multiuser and Multitasking: Multiple users can use the system at once,
and it can run many tasks simultaneously.
5. Customizable: You can change nearly every part of the system.

Popular Linux Distributions (Distros):

 Ubuntu – user-friendly, great for beginners

 Debian – stable and widely used for servers
 Fedora – cutting-edge features, backed by Red Hat
 CentOS / AlmaLinux / Rocky Linux – used in enterprise environments
 Arch Linux – for advanced users who want full control

Where is Linux Used?

 Web servers (e.g., Apache, NGINX on Linux)

 Supercomputers (most top supercomputers run Linux)

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  Smartphones (Android is based on Linux)
 IoT and embedded systems
 Developers' laptops and desktops

Components of Linux OS ?
Linux, like other operating systems, is made up of several key components that
work together to manage the computer's hardware and software.

Linux OS Structure (Simplified Diagram):

Applications
Shell
System Utilities
System Libraries
Kernel
Hardware

1. Kernel

 Core part of the OS.

 Manages system resources (CPU, memory, devices).
 Communicates between hardware and software.
 Types: Monolithic kernel (Linux kernel is monolithic).

A monolithic kernel is an architecture where the entire operating system (OS)

runs as a single large process in kernel space. It includes the core functions
such as:

 Process management
 Memory management
 Device drivers
 File system
 System calls
 Interrupt handling

All these components run together in one large block of code.

Example: Memory management, process scheduling, device drivers.

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2. System Library

 Special functions or programs used by applications to interact with the

kernel.
 Avoids the need for apps to directly interact with the kernel.

Example: GNU C Library (glibc) helps software use system calls.

The GNU C Library, commonly known as glibc, is the standard C library used
in GNU/Linux systems.
It provides the core libraries for the C programming language, including:

 System calls (e.g., open, read, write)

 Memory management (e.g., malloc, free)
 Process control (e.g., fork, exec)
 String handling (e.g., strcpy, strlen)
 File operations

3. System Utility

 Basic tools and commands for managing the system.

 Help users and admins perform tasks like copying files, managing
processes, and configuring networks.

Examples: cp, mv, top, ifconfig, ps

Command Purpose Example

cp Copy files or folders cp [Link] /backup/
mv Move/rename files or folders mv [Link] [Link]
top Monitor system in real time top
ifconfig Show network config (IP, MAC) ifconfig
ps Show running processes ps aux

4. Shell

 Interface between the user and the kernel.

 Accepts user commands and sends them to the kernel for execution.
 Types:
o CLI (Command Line Interface) – e.g., Bash, Zsh
o GUI Shell – graphical interface (e.g., GNOME Terminal)

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Example: Typing ls in a terminal shows files in a directory.

5. Hardware Layer

 Physical components: CPU, RAM, hard drive, keyboard, etc.

 Linux accesses hardware via the kernel and device drivers.

6. Application Layer

 User-level programs and apps.

 These run on top of the OS and include everything from browsers to text
editors.

Examples: Firefox, LibreOffice, GIMP, VS Code

What is a Shell in Linux?

A shell is a command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to interact with the
Linux operating system. It interprets the commands entered by the user and
communicates with the system to execute them. It acts as a bridge between the
user and the kernel.

Functions of a Shell:

 Accepts commands from the user.

 Interprets and passes them to the kernel.
 Displays the output or result of those commands.
 Types of Shells in Linux:

Command to
Shell Name Description
Use
Bash (Bourne Again Default in many Linux distros, user-
bash
Shell) friendly
Sh (Bourne Shell) Original Unix shell, simple sh
Zsh (Z Shell) Advanced shell, supports plugins zsh
Ksh (Korn Shell) Combines features of sh and csh ksh
Tcsh (TENEX C Shell) C-like syntax, user-friendly tcsh

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There are various types of shells available in Linux. The most commonly used
are:

 Bash (Bourne Again Shell)

 Zsh (Z Shell)
 Dash (Debian Almquist Shell)

1. Bash (Bourne Again Shell)

Features:

 Default shell on most Linux distributions.

 Supports command history, auto-completion, and scripting.
 Allows use of variables, functions, loops, and conditionals.
 Strong backward compatibility with the original Bourne shell (sh).
 Good support for interactive and non-interactive usage.

Example:

bash
echo "Welcome to Bash Shell"

2. Zsh (Z Shell)

Features:

 More customizable and feature-rich than Bash.

 Auto-suggestions based on command history.
 Improved tab completion with menu selection.
 Supports themes and plugins (Oh-My-Zsh is a popular framework).
 Has built-in spell-checking, path expansion, and better scripting
features.

Example:

zsh
echo "Hello from Zsh Shell"

3. Dash (Debian Almquist Shell)

Features:

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  Lightweight and fast, optimized for shell scripting.
 Used by Ubuntu and Debian as the default /bin/sh for system scripts.
 Not meant for interactive use (lacks user-friendly features).
 Executes scripts faster than Bash, useful for boot scripts and system-
level scripting.

Limitations:

 Does not support many Bash-specific features (like arrays or [[ ... ]] test
syntax).

Example:

dash
echo "This script runs faster with Dash"

Comparison Table:
Feature Bash Zsh Dash

Most Linux Ubuntu/Debian

Default Shell Optional
distros /bin/sh

Interactive Features Yes Advanced Minimal

Auto-completion Yes Better with plugins No

Scripting
Moderate Moderate High (fast)
Performance

Plugin/Themes Extensive (via Oh-

Limited No
Support My-Zsh)

Compatibility with
High Medium Very High
sh

Used for System

Sometimes Rarely Often
Scripts

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Note :

 Bash is user-friendly and widely used, perfect for beginners and general
use.
 Zsh is for advanced users who want more productivity and
customization.
 Dash is for fast, efficient script execution in system-level operations.

4. Bourne Shell

The Bourne Shell, known as sh, was developed by Stephen Bourne in 1979 at
AT&T Bell Labs.

It was the first standard shell in Unix and became the base for many other
shells like Bash, Dash, Ksh.

It is used to run shell scripts and execute system commands.

Features of sh (Bourne Shell)

 Portability: Scripts written in sh can run on almost all Unix and Linux
systems.
 Basic Scripting Support: Allows variables, loops, conditionals, and
functions.
 Control Structures: Supports if, else, elif, while, for, and case statements.
 Input/Output Redirection: Handles >, <, >>, and | for directing
input/output.
 Command Substitution: Uses backticks `command` to run commands
within commands.
 Simple Syntax: Easy to write and understand basic scripts.
 Efficient Execution: Lightweight and fast; suitable for system-level tasks.
 Script Compatibility: Can be used as /bin/sh in many Linux distributions.
 Minimal Environment: Doesn’t include advanced features but is reliable
for basic scripting.
 Used in System Scripts: Commonly used in boot and initialization scripts
(e.g., /etc/init.d/).

Korn Shell (ksh)

 Developed by David Korn at Bell Labs in the early 1980s.

 A superset of the Bourne Shell (sh) with features from C Shell (csh) and
additional programming capabilities.

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  Compatible with scripts written for Bourne Shell.

Features:

1. Command history – Recall and reuse previous commands using history.

2. Job control – Suspend, resume, or move processes to background.
3. Command aliasing – Shortcuts for long commands.
4. Built-in arithmetic – Supports integer arithmetic using (( )).
5. Script control structures – if, for, while, select, case, etc.
6. Arrays support – One of the first shells to support arrays.
7. Functions and local variables – Allows modular programming.
8. Command-line editing – Emacs or vi-style keyboard shortcuts.
9. Enhanced I/O redirection – >|, <>, and more advanced usage.
10. Faster execution – Optimized for performance compared to sh or csh.

Note:

 Korn Shell (ksh) is a powerful scripting shell suitable for programming

and automation.
 It offers robust scripting features and is used in enterprise-level
UNIX/Linux systems.

TENEX C Shell (tcsh)

 An enhanced version of C Shell (csh) developed at the Carnegie Mellon

University.
 tcsh is backward-compatible with csh and includes improvements from
the TENEX operating system.

Features:

1. C-like syntax – Familiar for programmers from C language background.

2. Command completion – Auto-completes filenames and commands with
TAB.
3. Command history – Browse and edit previous commands.
4. Spelling correction – Auto-fix typos in commands and filenames.
5. Job control – Background, foreground, suspend jobs using fg, bg, jobs.
6. Alias support – Define command shortcuts.
7. User-friendly prompt customization – Can display current directory,
hostname, etc.
8. Enhanced editing – Line editing features and command-line shortcuts.
9. Wildcards and globbing – Like *, ?, [] for pattern matching.

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 Note:

 TENEX C Shell (tcsh) is more user-friendly for interactive use,

especially with command-line editing, auto-completion, and C-like
syntax, but is less preferred for complex scripting.

Files and File Types in Linux:

In Linux, everything is treated as a file—including directories, hardware

devices, and even processes.

Files in Linux are the primary means of storing and accessing data.

Unlike Windows, Linux doesn’t rely on file extensions to identify file types but
instead uses metadata and content to determine the type of a file.

Linux File system Structure :

 Files are organized in a hierarchical directory structure (rooted at /).

 Each file has permissions, ownership, timestamps, and a type.

What Are Files in Linux?

In Linux, everything is a file — not just documents or pictures, but also

folders, programs, and even devices like your keyboard or hard drive.

Types of Files in Linux

Linux has different types of files. The most common are:

1. Text Files

 These files contain readable text.

 You can open and edit them using text editors like nano, vim, or gedit.

Examples:

 Notes or documents: [Link]

 Code files: [Link], [Link]
 System settings: /etc/hostname, /etc/passwd

Example Command:

bash

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cat [Link] # Show the content of a text file

2. Binary Files

 These files contain computer-readable data, not meant for humans.

 They are used by programs or the system.
 You can’t read them properly with a text editor — they look like random
symbols.

Examples:

 Program files: /bin/ls, /usr/bin/python3

 Images or videos: [Link], video.mp4

Example Command:

bash

file /bin/ls # Tells you it is a binary (executable) file

3. Special Files

These are special types of files that help the system talk to devices or allow
programs to talk to each other.

There are a few types of special files:

a) Device Files

 Found in /dev/ folder.

 Used to connect with hardware like USB drives, hard disks, etc.
 Two kinds:
o Character devices – transfer data one character at a time (e.g.,
keyboard).
o Block devices – transfer data in chunks (e.g., hard drive).

Example:

bash

/dev/sda1 # a block device (like a hard drive partition)

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b) Named Pipes (FIFOs)

 Help programs send data to each other.

 Think of it like a one-way tube: one program sends, the other receives.

bash

mkfifo mypipe # creates a pipe file

c) Symbolic Links (Shortcuts)

 These are shortcuts to other files.

 Like a shortcut on your desktop that opens a file in another location.

bash

ln -s real_file.txt [Link]

d) Sockets

 Used when programs need to talk to each other, especially over a

network.

Example: /var/run/[Link] (used by Docker)

How to Check File Type

Use this command to know what kind of file something is:

bash
file filename

Use this to see file types in a folder:

bash

ls -l

Look at the first letter of each line:

Symbol Meaning

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Symbol Meaning
- Regular file
d Directory
l Symbolic link
c Character device
b Block device
p Pipe (FIFO)
s Socket

File Type What It Is Example

Text File Readable by humans [Link]
Binary File Readable by computer only /bin/ls, [Link]
Device File Used to connect to hardware /dev/sda, /dev/tty
Pipe (FIFO) Program-to-program communication mypipe
Socket Communication between programs /var/run/[Link]
Symlink Shortcut to another file [Link]

What Is the File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS)?

The FHS is a standard that defines which directories should exist and what
they should contain in Linux systems. It helps keep things organized and
consistent.

Common Directories

Directory What It's For (Simple Explanation)

/ Root directory. The top of the filesystem. Everything starts here.
/bin Essential programs used by the system and all users.
/sbin System-only programs, usually for admin tasks.
/boot Files needed to boot (start) the system (like the Linux kernel).
/dev Files that represent devices (like hard drives, USBs).
/etc Configuration files for the system and programs.
/home Personal folders for regular users (e.g., /home/alex).
/lib Libraries needed by programs in /bin and /sbin.
/media Used to automatically mount USBs, CDs, etc.

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Directory What It's For (Simple Explanation)
/mnt Temporary mount point (e.g., for manually mounted drives).
/opt Optional software or third-party apps.
/proc Virtual folder for process info and system details (not real files).
/root Home folder for the root (admin) user.
/run Temporary data for running processes.
/srv Data for services (like web servers).
/tmp Temporary files; gets cleared on reboot.
/usr Programs and files for users and applications (not essential for boot).
/var Files that change often, like logs, emails, print jobs, etc.

/usr Subdirectories (for user-level programs)

Subdirectory Purpose
/usr/bin Most user programs
/usr/sbin System admin tools for regular use
/usr/lib Libraries for /usr/bin and others
/usr/share Shared data (icons, docs, etc.)
/usr/local Programs installed by the user

Note:

 /is the starting point of everything.

 /home is where your personal files live.
 /etc holds settings.
 /bin, /sbin, /lib, /usr, and /var are core system directories.
 /dev, /proc, and /sys are virtual – they represent system data, not actual
files on disk.

Example

If you are user jaimini, your files are in:

bash

/home/jaimini/

If you want to check system logs:

bash

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/var/log/

If you want to see installed apps:

bash

/usr/bin/

Linux Directory Structure & File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS)

In Linux, the File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS) defines how files and
directories should be organized. It helps all Linux distributions (like Ubuntu,
Fedora, Red Hat, etc.) to follow the same structure, so users and software
know where to find files.

Think of it like a library system — with specific sections for books,

magazines, newspapers, and archives. FHS makes it easy to keep things
organized and accessible.

The Root Directory /

Everything in Linux starts from a single root directory called / (a forward

slash).

From /, all other directories branch out like a tree structure.

Important Directories in Linux (with Explanation)

Directory Description Example Contents

All other folders are inside
/ Root directory: the top of the filesystem
it
/bin Essential binary commands for all users ls, cp, mv, rm
System binaries: Commands for system
/sbin fsck, reboot, ifconfig
admin
vmlinuz (Linux kernel),
/boot Files needed to boot the system
grub/
/dev/sda (hard disk),
/dev Represents devices as files
/dev/usb
/etc System configuration files /etc/hostname, /etc/fstab
/home User home directories /home/alex, /home/sara

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Directory Description Example Contents
/lib Libraries for programs in /bin and /sbin [Link], [Link]

/media Auto-mount location for removable devices USBs, CDs

Temporary mount location for manual

/mnt Custom mounts
mounting
/opt Optional software or third-party apps /opt/google/, /opt/skype/

/proc Virtual directory for process info /proc/cpuinfo, /proc/uptime

/root Home directory for the root (admin) user Only root can access

/run Temporary system data like PIDs, sockets /run/systemd/, /run/user/

/srv Data for services like web or FTP servers /srv/www, /srv/ftp

/sys Info about hardware devices and drivers /sys/class/, /sys/block/

/tmp Temporary files. Deleted after reboot. App caches, temp logs

/usr Secondary hierarchy for user applications /usr/bin, /usr/lib

/var Variable data that changes often /var/log, /var/mail

Important Directories

/bin – Basic Commands

 Contains important executable programs.

 Available even in single-user mode or during booting.
 Examples: ls, echo, cat, cp, mv

/sbin – System Commands

 Contains system admin tools.

 Usually used by root (admin).
 Examples: reboot, fdisk, iptables

/home – User Files

 Each user has a folder here:

o /home/john, /home/maria

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  Contains documents, downloads, pictures, etc.

/etc – System Configuration

 Contains settings for software and the OS.

 These are mostly text files.
 Examples:
o /etc/passwd: user accounts info
o /etc/hosts: maps IPs to hostnames

/proc – Process Info

 A virtual folder (not on disk).

 Shows live info about the system and processes.
 Example:
o /proc/uptime (system uptime)
o /proc/1/ (info about process ID 1)

/dev – Devices as Files

 All hardware devices appear as files.

 Example:
o /dev/sda = first hard drive
o /dev/tty = terminal

/tmp – Temporary Files

 Programs store temporary data here.

 Auto-deleted on system reboot.

Subdirectories Inside /usr – User Programs and Libraries

Directory Purpose
/usr/bin User programs (non-essential) like firefox, nano
/usr/sbin System programs for admin (not needed at boot)
/usr/lib Libraries for /usr/bin and /usr/sbin
/usr/local Software installed by the user, not by the OS

Subdirectories Inside /var – Variable Data

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 Directory Purpose
/var/log Log files (system and app messages)
/var/mail User emails
/var/tmp Temporary files that need to survive reboot
/var/cache App cache data

Special Directories

Directory Meaning
/root Home folder for root user
/opt Optional third-party software
/srv Data served by the system (like a website)
/run Info about currently running processes and services

Directory What it Stores Who Uses It

/ Root of all directories Everyone
/bin Basic commands All users
/sbin Admin tools Root/admin
/home Personal files Users
/etc Settings/configs System
/usr Software and tools Users & apps
/var Changing data (logs, mail) System
/tmp Temporary files Apps
/dev Device files System
/proc, /sys Virtual files (system info) System
/boot Boot loader & kernel System
/root Root’s home directory Root only

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