INTRODUCTION

Educational programmes are set up to teach or instruct learners about knowledge, ideas, thoughts,
principles and theories of old and current knowledge. Programmes are also set to advance progress of
the society.

This unit will therefore look into the concept of curriculum and its related terms for better
understanding

OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define the concept of curriculum

Ex\plain some terms that are related to curriculum

Defining Curriculum By traditional interpretation, curriculum involves all the experiences and
knowledge (school activities) the learner has under the guidance of the school or all the courses offered
within the school system inclusive of activities like drama, excursions, recreation etc. which are classified
as extra-curricular activities. Modern interpretation sees the curriculum as all the knowledge and
experiences got by a child in and out of the school walls, either on the timetable or outside it, i.e. The
experiences the learner has regardless of when or how they take place (Moronkola, Akinsola & Abe,
2000). Curriculum means a written description of what happens in the course. A curriculum differs from
a syllabus in that a syllabus is an outline of subjects or even topics students will cover in a course.
Curriculum is the totality of formal and informal content that imparts the skills, attitudes, and values
considered important in achieving specific educational goals.

Related Terms in Curriculum Studies

For better understanding of the course, it is essential we also have knowledge of some associated terms
like:

Syllabus: It is a document containing suggestion on programmes or topics to be learnt (content) for each
class, subject or course. The outline of topics must be designed in such a way that it will be suitable to
the age, interest, capacity and need of each class.

Scheme of Work: The breaking down or simplification of a syllabus into sub-division or units of
instruction so that teachers may use weekly, monthly or termly as a guide in teaching the students.

Lesson/Lesson Plan/Note: A lesson is a specific procedure of a subject or course content meant to be

taught within a specified period of time usually in a school setting. An outline of what to take place
during a teaching-learning process written down by a teacher before the lesson period is known as a
lesson note or plan. It is like a guide for effective teaching and learning during a lesson period.

Continuity: Repetition or reoccurrence of concepts, theories and principles learnt in a curriculum.

Sequence: This is related to continuity but while continuity connotes repetition of concepts, sequence of
theories implies degree of complexity as the learner moves up the ladder.
Domain: This means learning opportunities in a large group so that educational goals for a programme
may be achieved.

Objective in Curriculum: This is a statement on specific overt changes expected in the behaviour of a
learner usually after undergoing a learning task activity. or participation in a unit of learning

Instruction: It connotes implementation of the curriculum plan usually through the teaching-learning
process.

Curriculum Development: A c yclical process revealing creation of what learners need to learn through
objective statements, choosing and/or providing the right methods, learning experiences, learning
resources and evaluation techniques.

Curriculum Planning: A description of the process of creating a curriculum that entails developing,
monitoring and evaluating the total curriculum plan.

Curriculum Guide: A document usually developed by state or local school agencies. The content may be
recommendations for teaching a subject on content, teaching resources, learning experiences or
opportunities to be provided and evaluation techniques or methods.

Curriculum Design: A substantive entity of a curriculum revealing the arrangement of the components
or element of the curriculum like aims, goals and objectives, subject matter or content, learning
activities and evaluation.

Curriculum Models: Graphic models that enable curriculum planners to visualize curriculum
components, their relationships, process of development as well as implementation. They facilitate
theory building through provision of clues of what to think about thereby stimulating further research
and theoretical constructs.

Curriculum Change: Change in the educational curriculum of a society due to new expectations from the
education system of a country.

Curriculum Foundations: These are areas that determine what a curriculum will look like. These are
nature of knowledge, society, culture, learning theories, the individual learner.

CONCLUSION

Curriculum provides a mirror of what the goal, perhaps, of education should look like and for a better
understanding of the concept “curriculum” it is considered essential that some related terms as
discussed in this unit be understood

SUMMARY

Curriculum needs to be seen as the reconstruction of knowledge and experience, systematically

developed with the guidance of the school or relevant agencies which will enable the learner to have
better mastery of learning experiences for the learners’ and the society’s well-being.
Curriculum Theory and Model

Introduction

Objectives

Main Content

Curriculum Theory

Curriculum Models

Conclusion

Summary

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you were exposed to the basic meanings of curriculum and its related terms. An
understanding of the terms lays a solid foundation for you to easily grasp further knowledge of the
course. You can therefore reflect on what you consider to be the meaning of terms like: syllabus,
scheme of work, etc. This unit is on curriculum theory and models. You will find it interesting as you read
along.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Explain the curriculum theory

List and discuss the models of curriculum theory.

Curriculum Theory

Theory connotes interpreting established knowledge that is real and factual i.e. it is practical, valuable
but not speculative and not something we can refer to as common sense. A valid educational theory is
one of morally acceptable assumptions about aims, correct and checkable assumptions about
knowledge and verified assumptions about the effectiveness of methods. It is logically complex and
multidisciplinary in character, a field in which all the main disciplines of educational study may be used
to support practical recommendations and its validation will depend on work of a critical kind at various
logical levels (Moore, 1978).

EDUCATIONAL AND CURRICULUM DESIGN

Two of the earliest educators and philosophers documented by Ozmon and Craver (1976) and Schofield
(1982) will be considered here:

(a) Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A naturalist cum pragmatic thinker who believed among others that there should be connection
between nature and experience. According to him, children should not be viewed as miniature adults
but organisms going through the different stages of developmental processes. Educators should
therefore, ask questions about what is natural for children and education should be guided by the child’s
interest and that the child has an autonomy but the child must also prepare to suffer for the natural
consequences of his/her behaviour.

(b) John Dewey

He was a pragmatic thinker among others. He believed that there is need for genuine investigations into
experience directed to real life problems. According to him, genuine thoughts start with a problematic
situation. Educators must be sensitive to novelty and variations and must seek to be creative in dealing
with problems. Experience cannot be separated from nature and so the child should be in the natural
environment that facilitate social relationships and the educator must facilitate democratic education,
unify both the mind and the body of the learner in thinking and doing.

3.2 Curriculum Models

Models are blueprints of curriculum that are miniature samples that summarize data and methods
which help the reader to have an understanding of the whole package within a short period of time. The
y help in theory building in curriculum work. Depending on the nature and complexity of what they
represent, models generally are used in four categories:

(a) Physical Model: It is known as working model. It is a three dimensional device showing how things
work, as in cluster of coloured balls used in chemistry class to show the structure of molecules.

(b) Conceptual Model: Known as verbal model where a verbalized concept is essentially stuck to on
phenomena as an aid to comprehension. It might be sociological as in systems and games metaphors or
industrial/business whereby students are regarded as raw materials processed in the factory.

(d) Graphic Model: It is the common est which involves drawings or diagrams which make it possible for
one through visual means to describe the components of the thing being modeled and to explain the
relationships among its parts.

(c) Mathematical Model: this is the most complex and reduces phenomena to mathematical
expressions as in chemical equations.

Graphic Model: It is the common est which involves drawings or diagrams which make it possible for
one through visual means to describe the components of the thing being modeled and to explain the
relationships among its parts.

A curriculum model should allow quick comprehension of curriculum components and must be useful in
theory building through suggestion of questions that need to be asked in data and in providing clues to
possible answers. It should be possible to use model as a tool for stimulating research and theoretical
construct. Some models shall be considered here:

(1) MacDonald’s Model

MacDonald’s Model depicts curriculum as one of our interacting systems involving other systems such
as teaching, learning and instruction. Teaching depicts a personality system involving a teacher
performing his professional roles, learning as another p ersonality system wherein the students perform
task-related activities or behaviours which produce learning while instruction is the social system in
which formal teaching and learning processes occur which involves principally, the teacher and the
learner while the curriculum is regarded as the social system which culminates in a plan for instruction.

I Curriculum

Instruction

II

I Curriculum

Teaching Learning IV
III Instruction

II

Figure 1: Showing Macdonald’s Model

Adapted from Moronkola, Akinsola and Abe,( 2000).

The figure indicates the point of congruence where curriculum goals are operative in the instructional
settings through the agency of effective teaching activity as evidenced by the changed behaviour or
learning of students. This model brings to light the relationship between teaching/learning, instruction
and curriculum as an individual system.

(2) Johnson’s Model of the Dynamics of Curriculum and

Instruction System

Johnson’s model reveals the curriculum as the output of a curriculum development process which can
be visualized as the structured series of intended outcomes and later serves as an input for the
instructional system. Using the curriculum as a guide, the instructional system uses instrumental content
and teacher’s behaviour to ensure learning outcomes. While MacDon ald also sees the role of
curriculum in struction as that of guidance, it is a static representation with no visible processes built in,
which is the focus of Johnson’s by indicating the dynamics of the process of curriculum construction,
development and implementation. However, it has the weakness of not expressing the complex
relationships between teaching, learning, instruction and curriculum as MacDonald does

Johnson’s Model

Adapted from Moronkola, Akinsola and Abe (2000)

Zais’ Eclectic Model (The Foundations and Nature of the curriculum

Zais’ Model of curriculum d evelopment attempts to show in static terms the curriculum components
and the principal forces that influence its substance and design. Its principal concern is to show
graphically the principal variables and their relationships that planners need to consider in curriculum
construction. As shown in the model, the curriculum boundaries are not well defined but it is an
integrated unity. Within the model line, the four components making the curriculum are:

(a) aims, goals, objectives

(b) content

(c) learning activities

(d) evaluation are separated by jagged lines like a jigsaw puzzle which is meant to indicate the
relatedness of each component to the rest fitting well to give a well articulated picture.

The philosophical assumption serves as the basement which influences the valu e judgments of the
foundational areas which are also interrelated as the arrow shows but not a unified whole. The shaded
arrow links the foundations to the components of the curriculum which shows the influence of
curriculum foundations on the content and organization of curriculum components (i.e. the curriculum
design).

The Curriculum

An eclectic Model of the Curriculum and its Foundations

Adapted from Moronkola, Akinsola and Abe (2000)

CONCLUSION

Theory connotes interpreting established knowledge that is real, factual. It is valuable but not
speculative and not something we can refer to as common sense. Models should be seen as blueprints
of curriculum that are abstractions of reality that summarize data and methods which help the reader to
have an understanding of the whole learning tasks (curriculum development) within a short period of
time.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Constituent Elements of a Curriculum

3.2 Factors Which Influence Curriculum Development

3.3 Participants in Curriculum Development

3.4 Approaches to Curriculum Development

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Reading

INTRODUCTION

The primary aim of this unit is to expose learners to the development of curricula and to expose them to
critically review and develop health training curricula. The unit covers the elements and factors which
influence the development of curriculum.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 list and describe the process of curriculum

 develop a curriculum

 explain factors influencing curriculum development.

3.1 The Constituent Elements of a Curriculum

The constituent elements of a curriculum are:

1. A statement of rationale: This outlines the general philosophy of the training programme and why it is
required.

2. Outline of the ph ysical, administrative and financial requirements for such a course (resources).

3. Definition of the optimal facilities in terms of buildings, equipment and personnel.

A precise Statement of entry requirements for students and Methods of selection

A statement of course goals, specific objectives and course content.

6. An outline of main learning experiences which should be arranged to meet the objectives.

7. An outline of programmes giving a logical sequence of events.

8. Specification of how long each unit or learning block should take.

9. Specification of methods of continuous evaluation, final certification, remedial activities and referral
of failed candidates.

3.2 Factors Which Influence Curriculum Development

A number of factors influence the process of developing a curriculum. These include academic, social,
economic and political factors.

(a) Academic factors: These factors are significant in influencing curricula. They represent the views of
the teachers who teach the main subjects of a given health discipline.

(b) Social factors: The needs of the society dictate to a great extent what learners should learn. With
this consideration, the curriculum is designed to reflect the social and cultural needs of the local
population, thus rendering it relevant.

(c) Economic factors: Curriculum development is mone y consuming especially if it is to be done at the
national level. The inputs of experts both at the local and foreign levels and other different groups of
people and associations are to be sought for. To get the curriculum document itself tested and
evaluated and to carry out some other necessary activities, will certainly require a huge expense. It
should also be stressed that the kind of economic policy a country wishes to have in operation may also
be a factor in influencing curriculum development.

(d) Political factors: This factor is very crucial and should not be ignored as the number and type of
students to be trained is sometimes a political decision. In democracy, the manifestoes and the promises
of political parties during electioneering campaigns may lead to development of curriculum.

THE PARTICIPANTS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The participants In curriculum development are those individuals or groups of individuals who exert
some influence, either direct or indirect in determining the nature and activities of the curriculum. These
individuals and groups can be classified into external or internal participants.

Internal Participants

The internal participants are those individuals or groups who have direct connection with the curriculum
under consideration. Because of their direct influence, the internal participants exert a greater force in
determining the nature of the curriculum. In developing a curricu lum for health workers, six major
groups of internal participants can be identified: students, teachers, administrators, boards of
examiners, ministries of health and education, professional associations publishers and textbook writers.

External Participants

Many external participants in curriculum development may not exert direct influence on the process of
curriculum development. But the power that these individuals or groups can exert cannot be
underestimated. These are: the community, business and industry and non-governmental organizations.

3.4 Approaches to Curriculum Development

Several approaches have been used in the development of curricula but only three will be discussed
here.

(a) The Subject-Centred Approach

In this approach, subject specialists define the content required for a particular level of student. In
general, the content is ordered from pre- clinical subjects through to clinical subjects. The approach
assumes that nursing is a series of discrete, independent disciplines, the sum of which form the required
body of knowledge for a competent individual. Discussion as to how much of each subject should be
included in the training programme revolves around the total time available. The decision regarding
total time for the course tends to be taken by policy makers and health planners rather than learners.

Although this approach makes curriculum development an orderl y process, it poses various problems. It
puts the subject before the student.

The needs of the students are virtually ignored. Too much time is taken in acquiring knowledge and
not enough in learning necessary skills.
(b) The Integrated Approach

This approach is still subject centered and the only variation from the straight subject-centered
approach is that teaching units are fused together with larger structures or organ systems such as the
Cardiovascular, Central Nervous System, GIT, Respiratory, Endocrine Systems etc. The emphasis in an
integrated approach is on providing learners with less discrete chunks of information. It is hoped that
the learner perceives regularities and principles in the nursing discipline and hence develops higher-
order intellectual skills which are more easily transferable to the problem-solving situations which arise
in their work. Such an approach can be used in conjunction with the competency- based approach.

(c) The Competency-Based or Task-Based Approach

The approach is used mainly in training. Usually, it is the best approach in training of health workers.
Some typical features are:

1. The curriculum is organized around the functions of a health worker in a specified setting.

2. The output of training is a health worker who can practice at a defined level of proficienc y in
accordance with local conditions.

3. It is assumed that the majority of individuals can master the required level of proficiency, given
appropriate instruction and sufficient time.

The approach emphasizes that the setting within which the health workers will be expected to operate is
an extremely important determinant of the required level and type of competence.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In developing a curriculum that will meet the demands of the society, factors that influence curriculum
development and the participants must be properly considered as these variables determines to a great
extent the relevance and usefulness of the curriculum.