A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF SOIL PROPERTIES FOR

AGRICULTURE PLANNING IN SELECTED DISTRICT OF

MAHARASHTRA: A CASE STUDY ON YAVATMAL DISTRICT

[Link]

By

(Name of the Candidate in Capitals)

MANSAROVAR GLOBAL UNIVERSITY

SEHORE, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

MONTH YEAR

1
 (TITLE OF THESIS)

Thesis Submitted in
Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy

By

(Name of the

Candidate)Under

the Guidance

o(Name of the

Supervisor)

MANSAROVAR GLOBAL UNIVERSITY

SEHORE, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

MONTH, YEAR

2
 MANSAROVAR GLOBAL UNIVERSITY

SEHORE, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

Declaration by the Candidate

I,……………………………………………………………declare that the thesis

entitled………………………………………………………………………..………
………………………is plagiarism free as per UGC norms and is being submitted by me
for the award of Degree of Doctor of P h i l o s o p h y in is there cord of work carried out
by me under the guidance of……………………………..

(Name of Supervisor(s) and has not formed the basis for the award of any degree,
diploma, associate-ship, fellowship, titles in this or any other University or other
similar institutions of higher learning.

Date: [Name & Signature of the

Candidate]

3
 MANSAROVAR GLOBAL UNIVERSITY

SEHORE, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

Certificate by the Supervisor

I,………………………………………………………………….…certify that the

thesis entitled

………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………submitted for the award

of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in by …….…………………………………is the

record of research work carried out by him/her under my/our guidance and supervision
and that this work has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma,
associate-ship, fellowship or other titles in this

University or any other University or Institution of higher learning.

Date: [Name of Supervisor]

Date of Thesis Defended/Approved:

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Signature: Signature:

4
 Abstract

The study examines the geographical properties of soil in Yavatmal district, Maharashtra,
focusing on their influence on agricultural planning. Soil is a vital component in agriculture,
affecting crop production, land use planning, and sustainability. Farmers can improve crop
selection, increase yields, and implement sustainable farming concepts by understanding soil
characteristics, including fertility, amount of moisture, organic matter, and texture. The
research investigates the different types of soil found in the region, including black, red, and
alluvial soils, and assesses their suitability for various crops. It also examines the
significance of soil conservation techniques, which are exacerbated by factors such as
erosion and inappropriate agricultural practices, which contribute to soil degradation.

The primary findings underscore the importance of soil fertility and how it is controlled in
the context of agricultural development and food security. The study employs soil analysis
to comprehend the physical and chemical properties of the soil, thereby providing useful
data for the selection of crops, fertilization, and irrigation practices. The research also
stresses the importance of integrating soil science with geographical studies for effective
land use planning. This interdisciplinary approach is crucial in enhancing the long-term
sustainability of agriculture in Maharashtra as well the mitigation of soil degradation. The
study endeavors to optimize resource utilization and mitigate environmental harm by
promoting enhanced agricultural procedures through soil knowledge.

Keywords : Soil Properties, Geographical Study, Sustainable Agriculture, Agricultural

Planning, Nutrient Management, Soil Conservation, Water Retention, Soil Organic Carbon
(SOC), Crop Selection

5
 Table Of Content

Sr. No Item Page

No
1 Front Page i
2 Declaration by candidates iii
3 Certificate by Supervisor iv
4 Abstract with keywords ( v
5 Table of Contents vi
6 List of Figures viii
7 List of Tables ix
8 List of Abbreviations x
9 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
1.2 Composition and characteristics of soil
1.3 Importance of soil
1.4 Soil profile
1.5 Types of soil
1.5.1 Types of soil in India
1.5.2 Soil fertility
1.5.3 Importance of fertility assessment in soil
1.6 Four major components of the soils
1.6.1 Soil Properties
1.6.2 Soil temperature
1.7Composition and Characteristics of soil
1.8 Characteristics of brown earths
1.9 Soil Properties and Soil Quality
1.10Soil properties and its restoration or conservation
1.10.1 Soil Importance in Agriculture
1.10.2 Factors affecting SOC level in soil
1.11 Agriculture Planning
1.12 Geographical Study
6
 1.12.1 Importance of Geological Mapping
1.13 Scope of the Study
1.14 Problem Statement
1.15Objective
10 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
11 CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL AND METHODS
3.1 General
3.2 Study Area
3.3 Geographical Features
3.4 Data collection
3.5 Soil processing and storage
3.6 Agriculture Practices in Yavatmal
3.7 Collection and preparation of initial soil sample
3.8 Land Resource Data
3.9 Land Evaluation for Irrigation
3.10 Physical and chemical characteristics of soils
3.11 Soil Biological Properties
3.12 Soil Sampling & Soil Analysis
3.12.1 Soil test:
3.11 Soil analysis implies
3.12 Statistical Analysis
3.13 Laboratory and Experimental Work
3.14 Limitations of Study
12 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Soil
4.1.1. Physical and chemical properties of soil from irrigated
farmland.
4.1.2. Physical and physico-chemical properties of soil from no
irrigated farm land.

7
 4.1.3 Status of available primary macronutrient (N, P and K) in
soils of non-irrigated farmlands.
4.1.4 Status of available primary macronutrient (N, P and K) in
soils of irrigated farmlands.
4.1.5 Status of available secondary macronutrients (S, Ca & Mg)
in soils of irrigated farmland
4.1.6 Status of available secondary macronutrients (Ca, Mg & S)
in soils of non - irrigated farmland
4.1.7 Status of available micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn & Zn) in soil
of irrigated farmland
4.1.8 Status of available micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn & Zn) in soil
of non-irrigated farmland
13 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.2 Recommendations
14 REFERENCES

LIST OF FIGURE

Sr . No Content Page No

Fig.1.1. Soil relief 13

Fig.1.2. Soil profile 17

Fig.1.3. Types of soil 19

Fig 1.3 : Soil composition components 23

Fig 1.4 Nutrient availability chart 33

Fig 2.1 Conceptual framework 44

8
 Fig 3.1 Research Plan 64

Fig 3.2: Area of Study: Yavatmal 69

Fig 3.3: Location map of Yavatmal district, Maharashtra. 70

Fig 3.4 Chana Farm 76

Fig 3.5 Wheat Farm 77

Fig 3.7 Crop cotton Farm 80

Fig 3.9 Soil map of yavatmal district 107

Fig. 3.11 Soil testing Lab 122

LIST OF TABLE

Page
Sr. No Content No
Table A limited listing of soil attributes or properties that can be estimated from
1.2. basic input variables using pedotransfer functions or simple models 22

Table 3.1 Average amount of micronutrients present in soil. 55

Table 3.2 Sources and chemical forms of micronutrients in soil 56

Table 3.3 Ionic forms of micronutrients taken up by plants 57

Table
3.4: Initial properties of experimental soil 93

Table 3.5 Physical and chemical characteristics of soils 96

Table 3.6 Typical mass density of basic soil types: 102

9
Table 3.7 Typical values of modulus of elasticity (Es) for different types of soil: 102
Typical values of modulus of elasticity of submerged reaction (ks) for
Table 3.8 different types of soils: 103

Table 3.9 Typical values of Poisson’s ratio (u) for soils: 104
Table
3.10 Allowable bearing pressure on soils (for preliminary design): 105
Table
3.11 Typical interface friction angles (NAVFAC1982) 106
Table Typical values of fundamental period of soil deposits (for rock motion
3.12 with Amax=0.4g (SEAOC1980): 107
Table Mean shear wave velocity (m/s) for the top 30m of ground
3.13 (Borcherdt1994): 107

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

10
PH Potential of Hydrogen
GSI Geological Survey of India
SOC Soil Organic Carbon
CEC Cation Exchange Capacity
DTPA Diethylene Triamine Pentaacetic Acid
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
OC Organic Carbon
CaCO₃ Calcium Carbonate
BD Bulk Density
PAWC Plant Available Water Capacity
COLE Coefficient of Linear Extensibility

11
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Soil has a substantial impact on the agricultural environment of territories worldwide, which
is an essential part of the terrestrial ecosystem.(Gama, 2023). In this context, the present
study embarks on a comprehensive geographical exploration of soil properties, focusing on
their intricate interplay with agriculture planning in a selected district of Maharashtra, India.
Understanding the nuanced characteristics of the soil in Yavatmal is imperative for informed
and sustainable agricultural practices(Swathi & Rani, 2019).

Agriculture is a critical component of India's economy, as it provides employment

opportunities for a significant number of individuals and produces essential food products to
meet the country's growing demand(Cagliarini & Rush, 2011). Maharashtra, one of India's
most agriculturally diversified states, has a significant impact on this sector, greatly adding
to the country's agricultural output. However, the success and sustainability of agriculture in
Maharashtra, like in any other area, is heavily dependent on the soil's qualities(Cagliarini &
Rush, 2011). Soil qualities are crucial in influencing the sorts of crops that may be produced,
as well as their yield and overall agricultural outputComprehending the soil characteristics
across different districts in Maharashtra is essential for efficient land use planning, crop
selection, and the adoption of sustainable agricultural methods (Watershed et al., 2023).

The objective of this geographical research is to assess and analyse the soil characteristics of
particular districts in Maharashtra, with a particular emphasis on their importance in the
context of agricultural development and growth(Watershed et al., 2023). This research will
provide farmers, policymakers, and researchers with critical information to enhance
agricultural practices, guarantee food security, and promote sustainable farming practices in
the region by investigating the intricate aspects related to soil fertility and composition,
moisture content, along with other critical parameters(Watershed et al., 2023).

The complex interrelationship between geography and agriculture is a topic of great

significance, especially in areas where the One of the most important factors in choosing
agricultural productivity. Maharashtra is a varied and important state for agriculture in India
with a wide variety of soil types in its many districts(Tupe & Joshi, 2020). In order to
effectively plan for agriculture, It is imperative to understand the physical characteristics of

1
the soil as well as its distribution, as these factors directly influence crop selection, irrigation
methods, and basic land management procedures(Tupe & Joshi, 2020).

In order to provide a full knowledge of the regional differences that affect agricultural
output, this research sets out on a thorough investigation of the soil qualities in a few
districts in Maharashtra. The varied temperature, terrain, and geological formations of the
state provide a colorful tapestry of soil profiles, each with distinctive qualities(Tupe & Joshi,
2020). This study endeavors to offer useful knowledge for the development and application
of sustainable and productive agricultural techniques, recognizing the importance of
adapting farming methods to the distinctive characteristics of regional soils(Tupe & Joshi,
2020).

The districts that have been chosen for examination function as miniature versions of
Maharashtra's larger agricultural environment, including several agro-ecological
zones(Wasupiyush & M, 2019).

Through an examination of these districts' soil characteristics, this research seeks to clarify
the intricate interactions between elements including moisture retention, nutrient content,
and soil texture. These kinds of information are essential for developing precision
agricultural plans that maximise resource use and minimise environmental
damage(Wasupiyush & M, 2019).

Land resource is a significant and vital component of natural resources that provides the
spatial foundation for existence and for human economic activity, of which soil is the most
vital component. The fertility and condition of the soil have a major impact on how valuable
a piece of land is. The unique quality of soil is its fertility, which is why it can never be
substituted by anything else in forestry, agriculture, or other human economic endeavours.
Moreover, the terrestrial biological variety of life inhabits and functions inside the soil. As a
result, it is essential to the operation of terrestrial ecosystems and the earth's biosphere
overall. Consequently, soil is a nature substance that consists of horizons of minerals and
organic constituents of different thicknesses that are typically unconsolidated and exhibit
morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics that are distinct from
those of the parent rock []. It also regulates the natural cycle of water, air, and living
organisms. The unique physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil allow it to
support plant growth and distinguish it from the desolate substratum, which may consist of
solid bedrock or detritus. The planet's bountiful land resources have been relentlessly

2
exploited for centuries, resulting in the proliferation of soil deterioration, technological
contamination, and erosion processes

The protection of soil biological diversity and the avoiding of soil degradation and
devastation have become particularly critical due to the fact that a substantial portion of the
world's soil properties are at risk of irreversible loss at the advent of the twenty-first century.

The origin of soil is from weathered grains of rock materials due to the endogenic and
exogenic forces triggered by tectonic plates movement, seismic activities, volcanic eruption,
wind, waves, precipitation, sunlight, snow, river, streams, channels, plants, animals etc. Soil
is the result of biotic and climatic processes interacting with parent materials throughout
time, as well as the relief and contour of the ground. Soil undergoes continuous
transformation as a result of a diverse array of biological, chemical, and physical processes,
such as erosion and weathering. Weathering is the term used to describe the physical and
chemical degradation of minerals to produce scattered atoms or soil at or near the earth's
surface. An inch of top soil is formed over the course of about a millennium via the process
of soil formation. The five primary variables that interact to make soil are parent material,
time, climate, relief, and organisms. The term parent material describes the organic or
mineral substance that forms the foundation of soil. The features of soil, such as colour,
texture, structure, and mineral content, are inherited from its parent material. For instance,
soil that originates from a region with massive red sandstone rocks will also be red in colour
and feel similar to its parent material. A genetic horizon's parent material cannot be detected
in its original form; instead, it must be deduced from the traits the horizon has acquired as
well as from further evidence. Hard rocks provide the mineral stuff from which soil is
created. Rock fragments and earthy debris that accumulate as glacial till may be ground into
little pieces by glaciers. However, rock may weather and undergo significant chemical and
physical changes without moving from its original location. This changed substance is
known as residuum from rock. The material that gave rise to a modern soil may not have
been connected to the bedrock underneath it, nor may the parent material always have been
remnants of the bedrock immediately below. Even on mild slopes, particularly in really
ancient landscapes, the process of soil particles moving downslope is significant and may be
seen. Additionally, sedimentary rock strata that vary from one another may produce locally
related soil.

It is a fact that juvenile soil possesses certain characteristics from its progenitor material, and
soil formation can take many years. However, as soil ages, it may undergo changes in its
3
properties due to exposure to precipitation, the addition of organic matter, alongside other
environmental factors. It requires time for them to undergo transformation as they settle
when become more profoundly embedded. Eventually, they may transition from one type of
sediment to another. Over time, the progenitor material of the soil undergoes further
degradation and degradation through the weathering processes. The strata in the soil profile
have the following physical and chemical properties nonetheless being differentiated
through horizontal development processes. Due to this, soil that is more mature and older
has a well-defined sequence of layers. However, oxisols are renowned for their capacity to
weather and leach to the extent that specific sections are obscured. By constantly altering the
surface, certain geological processes hinder the formation of soil and keep the parent
material from weathering over a prolonged period of time. For example, soil growth is
hampered by the continuous removal of material caused by slopes eroding. When rivers
overflow into their floodplain during floods, additional silt is typically deposited along their
courses. The process of soil growth is constantly restarted by the addition of fresh material.
Time and climate interact throughout the process of soil growth. In warm, humid areas, soil
growth happens much more quickly, maturing the soil sooner. Weathering is hampered
because soil growth takes much longer in cold climates.

The most significant component that may influence how soil forms is most likely the
climate. Precipitation and temperature are the two main climatic factors. While lower
temperatures and less precipitation slow down soil development, Soil formation tends to be
accelerated by higher temperatures and an availability of water sometimes very
substantially. They estimate the rate of weathering and identify potential organic compounds
in the soil. The processes that will occur on a chemical and biological level during soil
formation are determined by moisture. Increased precipitation and a warmer environment
lead to greater plant cover and animal activity. Additionally, it indicates increased water
erosion, runoff, and percolation. All of these aid in identifying the kind of soil present in a
given place. The climate has an impact on both the activity of organisms and the produce of
vegetation. A reduction in the quantity of organic material in the soil is observed during
searing, arid desert environments due to the reduced flora. The chemical weathering process
is impeded in arid regions due to the absence of precipitation, which leads to soil with a
coarse texture. Bacterial activity is restricted by the frigid tundra, which permits the
accumulation of organic materials. In the balmy, humid tropics, bacterial activity is
accelerated, resulting in the complete degradation of leaf debris. The tropical jungle's dense

4
foliage facilitates the rapid absorption of available nutrients by the plants. Additionally, an
amount of the organic matter is removed from the soil by the annual rainfall that is
particularly intense. The combination of these elements results in soil with minimal levels of
organic matter in the upper strata. Vegetation and climate interactions also impact soil
chemistry. Pine trees frequently dominate humid, chilly climates. In the presence of water,
pine fiber decomposition generates a moderate acid that eliminates soluble bases, resulting
in an acidic soil. Additionally, the soil's nutrients are recycled by decomposing needle
debris, as pine trees do not require a significant amount of minerals. Broadleaf deciduous
trees, such as oak and maple, perpetually recycle soil nutrients to maintain the soil's high
concentration of soluble bases, which is a result of their increased nutritional requirements.
Relief is the location of the terrain and the slopes that are present in a certain region. Relief
affects soil formation in a number of ways, the slope of the land being the most significant.
A steep slope prevents soil formation from occurring and promotes rapid water flow. In
places with steep slopes, soil erosion could even occur. On gentler slopes, erosion will have
less of an impact, and the deposits near the base of the slopes are richer. Deep soils are often
found in locations with low relief or gentle slopes, where deposition occurs. This explains
why the northern plain of India has extensive layers of rich alluvial soils, whereas the soil in
the plateau region is often shallow. The river basins on the plateau that have suitably deep
soil layers are the exceptions. The soil's fertility is also primarily determined by the slope's
angle. Additionally, slopes that get more direct sunshine may cause the fluid in the soil to
dry up and lose its fertility. Fig. 1.1 displays the soil relief as well as the impact of streaming
water into the soil.

[Link] relief

5
Soil organisms also affect weathering of rocks. The organisms are the organisms that inhabit
the soil and are responsible for the organic matter's abundance. Specifically, plants
contribute a substantial quantity of vegetative detritus to the soil. Furthermore, the soil is
retained by their roots, which also protect it from erosion resulting from water and wind.
They facilitate water retention, which is crucial for chemical and biological reactions by
decreasing the amount of sunlight that reaches the soil. Soil aeration is facilitated by a wide
range of creatures, including burrowing animals, bacteria, fungus, insects, and
[Link] facilitating the disintegration of organic molecules, The method of
decomposition is expedited by nematodes. Further aiding in the breakdown of organic
matter are the presence of dead insects, animals, and animal [Link] addition,
microorganisms are crucial to the cycle of the nutrients and minerals, as well as to chemical
processes. All living things, or biotic components, rely on the soil for their nutritional needs.
The demise of an organism releases its nutrients back into the ground for subsequent life
forms to use. Soil and living organisms are in a continuous state of nutrient cycle. This cycle
is responsible for restoring and maintaining the soil's nutritional status. It would prevent
soluble nutrients from evaporating out of the soil, reducing its capacity to sustain life. The
requirements of the organism inhabiting a certain space determine how much nutrition is
cycled. Animals that burrow open spaces in the soil, facilitating water penetration and
aeration. Additionally, they aid in material translocation and deep soil fertilization.

1.2 Soil composition and properties

Pedology is Soil science, including its composition, properties, and origins. Both biological
and inorganic materials make up soil. The initial rock was broken down into mineral
particles by weathering and erosion, which formed the foundation of the soil and comprised
45% of the soil. The parent rock is the kind of rock that underwent decomposition to
produce soil. The majority of the minerals in the soil that plants eat are produced by the
broken down rock. The parent material affects the pH level, texture, colour, and depth of the
soil. The decomposing plant matter that the soil's microorganisms break down to create
humus is known as organic matter. A black, jelly-like material called humus 7 thickens and
enhances the texture of the soil. It enhances the soil's ability to hold on to [Link] the
absence of air, bacteria would be unable to live, resulting in a restricted availability of
humus. Plants need water to thrive, which is found in the soil. Plant roots can only take up
dissolved nutrients because mineral particles dissolve in water. The way a soil feels to the
touch may be characterised by its texture. The quantity of silt, sediment, and clay in the soil
6
is the determining factor in its texture. The efficacy of superfluous moisture removal is
influenced by the texture, which also affects the ease with which roots and moisture can
reach the soil. Loam soil is the most advantageous soil texture composition, consisting of
40% sand, 40% detritus, and 20% clay. The roots are facilitated in their expansion by the
well-developed particle structure, which allows for the movement of water, oxygen, and
organisms. Loam soil is an exceptional choice for agricultural purposes due to its
exceptional water and nutrient retention, as well as its robust drainage and aeration
capabilities. Darker dirt absorbs more light, whereas lighter-colored soil reflects sunlight.
This promotes faster seed germination by enabling the earth to heat up more rapidly.
Another significant factor in the humification process is heat. Because of its high humus
content, this soil appears darker and promotes healthy crop development. A substance's
acidity or alkalinity is determined using the pH scale. Agriculture requires a pH of 6.5,
which is somewhat acidic. Overly acidic soil is deficient in calcium and potassium, which
are necessary for plant development, and contains fewer living things than necessary for
humification. Peaty soil has a pH of less than 4, making it very acidic. The majority of this
type of soil is located in mountainous regions of the western United States. They are
frequently damp and have undergone leaching.

1.3 Importance of soil

Soil is vital for life, in that it provides the growing medium for plants and serves as a haven
for a variety of insects and other organisms. It also functions as a surface water filter, a
carbon store, and a way to preserve atmospheric gases. In addition to supplying plants with
the essential nutrients and minerals, soil also maintains the erect position of roots and
provides them with support during the growth process. Air is also delivered so that roots and
the environment may exchange gases. It provides the necessary oxygen and moisture for
organic molecules to break down. Soil retains water, maintains proper aeration, and shields
plants from harmful physical, biological, and chemical activities. Soil is home to
microorganisms and insects that depend on it for both food and oxygen. Vermin and termites
are only two examples of the many different kinds of animals that live in soil. Additionally,
it offers a habitat for a diverse array of species to conceive, birth, and nurture their offspring.
After rainfall and snowmelt, water travels over the earth's surface to form reservoirs of
water. However, the majority of this water is absorbed by the ground. It is filtered to remove
dust, pollutants, and other contaminants as it descends through the earth's many strata.
Because of this, aquifers are among the purest water sources. Additionally, filtered water

7
provides plants with the pure, uncontaminated water they need to develop. The humification
process is impeded by the high acidity and high quantity of water of peaty soil, which results
in the incomplete decomposition of certain organic compounds. This causes the soil's
organic matter, which has a high carbon concentration, to accumulate. In addition, the soil
stores, changes, and cycles a variety of additional nutrients, including phosphate and
nitrogen.

1.4 Soil profile

Soil profile is an important concept in soil science. As a vertical portion of dirt that drops
from the surface of the earth to the point where the soil and underlying rock meet, that is its
definition. In locations with tropical climates where the underlying rock is rapidly altered to
become soil, the soil profile may be as deep as several meters and as thin as 10 cm in
juvenile soil. The soil profile in temperate regions is typically one metre deep, whereas it is
somewhat shallower in dry regions. It is essential to comprehending the processes that have
led to the evolution of soil .The soil horizons are the strata that are parallel to the surface and
comprise the soil profile. and serves as the foundation for the many kinds of soil
categorisation. The Soil horizons are the layers that make up the soil profile and run parallel
to the surface. Every horizon differs from the horizons above and below by a little amount or
a great deal. Soil horizons consist of OHorizon . Horizons are classified into a variety of
categories, such as A, E, B, C, and R. The diverse soil horizons are illustrated in Figure 1.
The term O-horizon is used to describe organic materials. It's a top layer where a lot of
organic material, in various states of decomposition, that comes from dead plant and/or
animal wastes predominates. About 20% of it is organic. Due to the presence of organic
material, this horizon often has a dark brown or black hue. That is the stratum that contains
tiny grass roots. The A-horizon may be observed in the absence of the topsoil, or O-horizon.
It is the uppermost stratum of soil in numerous agricultural and grasslands regions.
Typically, the quantity of partially decomposed organic matter in this section is sufficient to
produce a soil colour that is darkest than that of the lower horizons. They are typically
composed of sediment, silt, and clay, and they contain a substantial amount of organic
materials. This stratum is the region in which the most biological activity occurs. Here is
where the majority of soil creatures are found, often in close proximity to plant roots. These
organisms include fungus, nematodes, arthropods, earthworms, pot worms, and many
species of bacteria and archaea. You may call the A-horizon the bio mantle as a result. This
stratum is at risk of severe erosion due to wind and water. It is also known as the root zone

8
The word Ehorizon, which comes from the Latin eluviated, is frequently used to refer to a
horizon that is heavily leached of clay, iron, and aluminium oxides and has a high
concentration of refractory minerals, including quartz, in sand and silt [Link] are
exclusively discovered in ancient, well-developed sediments and frequently occur among
horizons A and B. E-horizons are typically located beneath the O and A-horizons and are
characterized by a paler hue. It is frequently abundant in nutrients, as it is leached in the
upper A and O strata. It is prevalent in forest lands and regions with superior O and A
horizons and has a reduced clay percentage. There are some parallels between B-horizon
and E-horizon. It's typical to refer to the B-horizon as the subsoil. Silicate, clay, iron,
aluminium, and carbonates may be found in significant concentrations in this horizon, which
forms under the O, A, and E horizons. Because of the mineral buildup, it is also known as
the illuviation zone and is the stratum where large trees' roots terminate. The B-horizon is
above the so-called C-horizon. Known as saprolite, this layer is devoid of all the
characteristics of the layers above it and is little impacted by soil-forming processes. There
is no organic stuff present and the bedrock is mostly fractured. It contains geological debris
and cemented sediment. Although there isn't much action going on, soluble material
additions and losses might happen. The bedrock, or R-horizon, is the material that has been
compressed and held firmly in place by the vistas above it. The original primary material is
this. Here, limestone, basalt, and granite are among the geological types.

[Link] profile

1.5 Types of soil

Six different kinds of soil exist. Figure 1.2 provides a visual depiction of the various soil
types. Sand soil has the biggest, finest, hardest particles and drains freely. It doesn't bond

9
very well and feels grainy. It has a poor capacity to hold water and warms up rapidly in the
spring. Because water often washes the nutrients away, this soil has very little of them. The
size of the particles determines the degree of aeration, and they vary greatly. Usually,
bedrock like shale, limestone, granite, and quartz weathers or dissolves to make it. The
smallest particles make up clay soil, and they connect quite effectively. There aren't many
air gaps in it. It can be moulded into any shape or form and becomes very sticky when wet.
When dry, it is very hard and has poor drainage. It is thought that clay soil forms in areas
where rock comes into touch with steam, water, or air. Over time, sediments on lake or sea
bed bottoms might becoming clayey. Chalky soil has a pH of around 7.5, is pale in colour,
and is alkaline. It has chalk or limestone bedrock and is often stony without being acidic.
Because it is rocky and gritty, it drains freely. Summertime drying makes it unsuitable for
growing crops because it depletes the soil of manganese and iron. Compared to sandy soil,
silty soil is smoother, finer, and better at holding onto water. It is also superior for crop
cultivation and absorbs nutrients better. Silty soil has characteristics that are about halfway
between those of sandy and clay soil, making it heavier than sandy soil. Silt is created when
fine particles delivered by ice or water settle somewhere. Siltstone is created when silt is
deposited and then cemented over time. Because silt particles are so tiny, they are difficult
for the eyes to notice, and when they are touched, they leave behind some residue. Peaty soil
is soft, dark brown or black in appearance, and rich in organic matter, and readily crushed
because to its high water content. Peat soil was created more than 9,000 years ago when
glaciers melted swiftly, instantly drowning vegetation. Because the rotting of the twelve
plants happened so slowly, organic matter accumulated in one place. Even though peat soil
often has a high water content, it becomes a beneficial growth medium when it is drained.
Summertime brings extreme dryness. The value of peat soil is derived from its capacity to
protect the roots from damage throughout the rainy months and retain water throughout the
arid months. Although peat includes acidic water, farmers utilise it as a control agent for soil
diseases and to adjust the chemistry or pH levels of the soil. Peat soil is not a ball when
rolled, but it is pliable to the touch and releases water when pressed. Sand, clay, and silt
particles combine to form loamy soil, which may hold onto water. It is soft, well-drained,
fertile, and has a strong granular structure, making cultivation of it simple. It is excellent for
crops and vegetables because of its high calcium content and strong aeration.

10
 Fig.1.3. Types of soil

1.5.1 Types of soil in India

India's soil is an important main resource that facilitates both agriculture-based economic
growth and the country's food security. India's soil has a varied composition and structure. In
India, the growth of soil is primarily influenced by critical variables such as temperature,
height, and subsoil composition. There are numerous distinct types of soil. The uneven
yearly rainfall patterns throughout the distinctive qualities of the country's soil are
influenced by the nation and its harsh climate. The eight primary types of soil found in India
are laterite, black, desert, red and yellow, salty, alluvial, mountain, and peat soil. This soil is
quite productive, as it contains a large percentage of lime and a modest quantity of potash.
It is also known as black cotton soil due to its exceptional suitability for cotton cultivation/.
In this soil, groundnuts, wheat, and sugarcane are also grown. Sand-It is common to find
covered desert soil in South Punjab, Rajasthan, and Haryana. Due to insufficient
precipitation, the soil has become salty and is no longer suitable for farming. Despite this,
current irrigation technology allows for the continuation of farming. You may cultivate
groundnuts, wheat, bajra, and other crops on this soil. On granite rocks under conditions of
little rainfall, red soil forms. The soil's distinctive red tint is caused by the dispersion of red
oxides of iron. The majority of South Eastern Tamil Nadu North- and South-Eastern
Karnataka This medium-fertile soil is found in Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, considerable
areas of Orissa, and the hills and plateaus of northeastern India. Red soil may support good
crop growth when fertilised and well-irrigated. Cotton, wheat, rice, millets, gramme, oil
seeds, and pulses are all farmed in these regions.

11
1.5.2 Soil fertility
The term soil fertility describes the degree to which soil conditions are favorable for the
growth of plant life. Soil quality is significantly influenced by nutrients, organic matter,
water retention capacity, nutrient leaching, nutrient conversion into gases and indigestible
plant forms, and nutrient uptake by crops, alongside agricultural practices, pests, diseases,
microorganisms, soil structure, microclimate, irrigation systems, land fragmentation, and
soil erosion. In addition to the amounts of nitrogen and trace minerals like cobalt, copper,
iron, manganese, magnesium, sulphur, and zinc, the amount of organic matter also affects
soil fertility since it improves soil structure, moisture retention, and plant species growth.A
fertile soil is one that is both permeable and well-drained; it also has a deep depth profile
that plants can root into; it is home to many different kinds of beneficial microbes; and its
pH is between 6.0 and 6.8, which is ideal for most plants' growth (though some do better in
acidic or alkaline environments). Soil microbes and organic matter decompose, releasing
macro, micro, and trace components that plants may use. Soil nutrient availability is linked
to nutrient concentration and shape. The rate at which they are released into the soil, either
directly or via the soil solution absorbed by plants, is also significant. Furthermore, soil
fertility is influenced by the amount of organic matter, which enhances soil structure,
moisture retention, and plant diversity, as well as by the concentrations of nitrogen and trace
metals (cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, magnesium, sulphur, and zinc). Soil structure is
also influenced by these factors. Intensive farming methods, plantations, forest cover,
pastures, land use, land cover, climate, and rock types all influence the nutrition rate in a
given region, which in turn affects the soil fertility of that area. Particularly in areas where
soil has been eroded or where agricultural landforms follow riverbeds, soil nutrient deficits
may manifest as a lack of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium. Natural vegetative cover
reacts by changing its cover in response to changes in soil fertility. How we utilize and cover
our land may have a major impact on how fertile our soils become .This is accomplished via
nutrient cycling, which enhances the accessibility of organic materials and nutrients to
plants. A permanent improvement of grass or legume pastures has been connected to a rise
in soil organic matter and the activity of both macro- and microfauna in inland locations. In
most cases, this leads to improved soil structure, which in turn improves the interactions
between water in the soil and air circulation. Assuming there are no obstacles to plant
growth, the soil can provide enough water and nutrients for plants to grow and multiply, all
dependent on how fertile the soil is. Soil chemical composition, temperature, weather,
precipitation patterns, and mineral age are the main factors that determine a soil's fertility.
12
Soil fertility is a fascinating and complex field of research, as it is one of the most critical
natural resources. Mining, discharge, erosion, pesticide usage, urbanisation, and improper
agricultural techniques belong to the numerous natural and human-made variables that
contribute to soil deterioration and contamination, which have become one of the most
essential problems in the world. The soil's long-term fertility traits are also affected by these
activities. Soil nutrient supply has been under increasing pressure as a result of human
population expansion and ecological degradation caused by food and fiber production, for
example. Therefore, a major issue in the current era is the development and use of
technology for soil, crop, and nutrient management that enhance plant yields and water, air,
and soil quality. Without increasing the productive capacity of our fragile land, we will not
be able to continue meeting the food and fiber demands of our growing population. A steady
supply of synthetic fertilizers is becoming more important to modern agriculture due to the
use of green revolution technologies. Soil acidity and alkalinity rise, soil hardness and
organic carbon and microbial flora decline, and chemical fertiliser overuse and imbalance
have detrimental effects. This situation leads to a considerable decline in soil fertility.
Humans have power on the fertility state of the soil, which indicates the soil's potential to
give nutrients. Still, soil degradation is a consequence of depleting human activities 22 and
the ways in which they interact with the natural world. Particularly in semi-arid regions,
these undesirable interactions cause salinization, alkalization, water logging, and other
problems.

1.5.3 Importance of fertility assessment in soil

Two aspects of assessing soil fertility include determining the soil's ability to continuously
supply crops with nutrients and determining the availability of plant nutrients. Numerous
elements affect nutrient availability, including as soil reactivity, pH, organic matter
concentration, soil texture, and irrigation system [Link] that the soil remains highly
fertile while maintaining a sustainable production foundation is crucial for providing for the
ecosystem's fundamental requirements, particularly those of humans and animals. In India,
excessive irrigation and chemical fertiliser usage are causing difficulties with salinisation,
water logging, and other issues with soil fertility, industrial waste, contamination from
dying, tannin, sugarcane and allied industries, urbanization, encroachment, mining, intensive
cultivation etc. Soil fertility largely determines the agricultural productivity. During the past
few decades, our Government has made significant strides to achieve self-sufficiency in
agricultural productivity to fulfil the needs of an expanding population while attempting to

13
increase the land's fertility. To ensure the soil characteristics and have better planning and
management activities, it is necessary to analyse the soil fertility in all areas of the region in
order to fulfil the aim. Numerous scholars have conducted extensive study on these topics
and they have suggested that a periodical monitoring and assessment Understanding soil
fertility in a region is crucial for managing soil fertility [Link] overcome the inferior
soil conditions attempts like introduction of better plant varieties, reduction of erosion losses
and management of illness and insect infestations have been implemented in many parts of
the country.

 Definition

A dynamic natural body with specific Soil is a material with unique chemical, physical,
mineralogical, and biological qualities that is produced by pedogenic processes occurring as
rocks weather. It serves as a medium for plant development and varies in depth across the
surface of the earth(Mandal, 1998). Five processes are essential for sustaining terrestrial life:
(1) biomass generation; (2) ecosystem resilience and restoration; (3) water purification; (4)
pollutant detoxification; and (5) the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, and
water(Mandal, 1998).

1.6 Four major components of the soils

Mineral soils are primarily composed of four elements: organic matter, water, air, and
mineral elements. (S, 2022).shown in Figure 1. Keep in mind that this soil is composed of
about half pore space (air and water) and half dirt. There are around 50The total volume of
soil is composed of 5% organic matter, 45% mineral stuff, and 25% solid space. The pore
space is about half its volume at the ideal wetness for plant development, with 25% of it
being water space and the remaining 25% being air. Under natural circumstances, the ratios
of air and water may vary greatly and quickly based on the weather and other variable(S,
2022).

14
 Fig 1.3 : Soil composition components.

It is crucial to remember that a normal soil's four primary components are mostly found in a
situation of close mixture. This promotes communication both inside and between the
groupings and allows for significant diversity in the environment that is necessary for plant
development(S, 2022).Subsoils have a different volume composition than what was
previously mentioned. They have less organic matter and a somewhat smaller total pore
space than topsoils. This indicates that their proportion of water and minerals is larger than
their proportion of organic stuff and air(S, 2022).

1.6.1 Soil Properties

The properties and makeup of the soil greatly influence the behaviour of soils and the
potential uses for them. Two of the most important aspects of soils are their texture and
structure. By texture, we mean the materials that make up soils and how that influences their
feel and cultivation(Cianfrani et al., 2018). The fundamental components of soil texture are
organic matter, silt, clay, and sand particles. Soils containing a significant number of sand-
sized particles have a grainy texture. The arrangement of the grains results in many holes.
Additionally, this implies that precipitation that does penetrate the soil may readily drain
away, making the soils relatively dry(Cianfrani et al., 2018).In contrast, clay soils have a lot
less tiny holes, which means that water can not flow through them as easily. As a result, they

15
might become moist during rainy seasons and can sometimes be challenging to grow.
(Cianfrani et al., 2018).

The majority of soils also profit from the organic matter that decomposes plant debris. The
primary glue that binds particles together and is essential to topsoil is organic matter
formations(Cianfrani et al., 2018).It can make most soils more workable, regardless of
texture, which is why farmers frequently add farmyard manure to the soil to raise the
amount of biological materials. This results in the development of well-structured, easily
workable soils that are perfect for farming; gardeners also maintain high soil organic matter
levels for the same reasons(Cianfrani et al., 2018).

The health, fertility, and general suitability of land for agriculture are all significantly
impacted by soil properties, which include a spectrum of features(Sawant & Krishi, 2019).
Understanding the dynamic interplay between soil and plant life and shaping the success of
agricultural operations need an understanding of these properties. Texture, structure,
moisture content, nutrient composition, and pH levels are important aspects of soil
properties(Sawant & Krishi, 2019).

The texture of soil is a crucial characteristic that is determined by the ratios of clay, silt, and
sand [Link] significantly influences aeration, drainage, and water retention. An optimal
soil texture fosters perfect circumstances for root development and nutrient uptake.(Sawant
& Krishi, 2019). The organisation The way soil particles are arranged into clumps or
aggregates is referred to as soil [Link]-structured soil promotes root tangling, water
movement, and aeration. Conversely, compaction resulting from inadequate soil structure
may impede root growth and nutrient availability(Sawant & Krishi, 2019).One important
factor affecting plant water availability is moisture content. The characteristics of soil
determine its ability to retain water and drain it, which affects how resilient crops are to
drought or too much moisture. Planning irrigation systems and managing water resources
sustainably depend on an understanding of moisture dynamics. The soil's nutritional
equilibrium is essential for plant nutrition and fertility(Sawant & Krishi, 2019). Strong plant
growth is supported by micronutrients and essential elements including potassium,
phosphorus, and [Link] figuring out how much nutrition the soil contains, soil
CorrelationbetweensoilpHing assists farmers in applying fertilizers to correct deficiencies
and maximise crop yields. The pH values show the soil's acidity or alkalinity. Specific crops
thrive within particular pH ranges, and soil pH influences nutrient availability. Farmers may

16
foster an atmosphere conducive to the development of preferred crops by monitoring and
adjusting pH levels.(Sawant & Krishi, 2019).

1.6.2 Soil temperature

A key element in crop development is soil [Link] soil temperature is determined
by the ratio of absorbed energy to lost energy. Soil temperatures might vary between 20 and
60°C. Soil temperature regulates nutrient availability, plant and root growth, and seed
germination. However, neglecting the significance of soil temperature influences many
processes, such as root formation, microbial activity, root metabolism, absorption of water
and nutrients, organic matter decomposition, soil chemistry, and soil moisture levels.
Depending on their range of soil temperature tolerance and optimal temperature, various
crop types react to soil temperature in different ways. The objective of agroecosystems is to
control soil temperature fluctuations within a crop's tolerance range and as near to the crop's
optimum as feasible. But every crop and environment combination calls for a unique
strategy. In the tropics, the farmer must plan, oversee, and maintain cold soil in order for
plants native to temperate climates to flourish. It is required to elevate the soil temperature
during one season and lower it during another in temperate areas. Typically, plant leaves
cool the soil by shading it and preventing it from absorbing solar radiation. The same
vegetation cover aids in preventing convective heat loss to the atmosphere at night. The link
between soil temperature and mulching (covering the soil) is more nuanced. The majority of
mulches reduce heat loss at night. Mulches of a lighter hue reflect more solar radiation,
which helps to keep the soil cooler. The temperature of the soil is raised by darker-colored
mulches because they absorb more solar energy as heat and transfer it to the soil below.
While organic mulches reduce the warming of the soil, clear plastic coverings capture solar
energy and increase the temperature of the soil. In reality, methods for adjusting soil
temperature often have an impact on soil moisture as well. Increased vegetative cover and
all types of mulches will help to retain soil moisture. More soil exposure to the sun dries out
the soil and increases its warmth. There are significant daily, monthly, and seasonal changes
in soil temperature. As soil depth increases, The soil's temperature variations diminish.
Various elements, including soil colour, moisture content, topography (slope, orientation,
and altitude), and soil cover (shading and insulating), influence soil temperature. The soil
temperature is markedly affected by the colour and insulating properties of the ground
cover. The survival and initial growth of seedlings are contingent upon soil temperature,
which also influences the anatomical and morphological traits of root systems.

17
1.7Composition and Characteristics of soil
Pedology is the scientific study of soil. Both organic and inorganic particles make up soil,
which is necessary for life as we know it. I have investigated brown earths as a soil type.
Ireland's most frequent soil type is brown earth, which is also very fertile. Soil composition
consists of 25% air, 25% water, 5% organic matter, and 45% mineral particles(Toor, 2017).

 Mineral Particles
The majority component, mineral particles, account for around 45% of soil composition.
These are the initial rocks that weathered and eroded into the soil's foundation. The
parent rock is the kind of rock that was crushed to create it. The plants feed on the
minerals that are produced in the soil by the breakdown of rock, including calcium,
phosphorus, and potassium. The parent material affects the ph, texture, depth, and colour
of the soil(Toor, 2017).
 Organic Matter:

Decomposed vegetation is known as organic matter, and it is broken down into humus by
soil microorganisms. Humus is a black, jelly-like material that thickens and enhances the
texture of soil. It makes the soil more capable of holding onto rainwater. In areas of
deciduous woods with a lot of plant litter that is ready to decompose, brown earths form.
Brown earth soils may also be found in areas with annual average temperatures that seldom
rise above 21 degrees and fall below zero for fewer than three months. It is under these
settings that bacteria may flourish. The amount of organic material in the soil is indicated by
its colour, with darker soils having a higher organic content. A lot of humus is found in
brown earths

 Air and Water:

Microorganisms need on air to survive, and humus would be in limited supply without
them. Because of their granular texture, brown earths have excellent aeration. Plants
need water to thrive, which is found in the [Link] mineral particles dissolve in
water, plant roots can only take up their nutrients after the particles have been
dissolved(Toor, 2017).

1.8 Features that define brown earths

Brown earths typically have four horizons and a depth of two meters. There is a thick layer
of black humus across the A horizon. There are many microbes, which thoroughly mix the
soil and obfuscate the distinction between the A and B horizons. Though it is a paler shade
18
of brown, the B horizon is comparable. There is a buildup of crushed rock and clay in the C
horizon. The bedrock is the lowest stratum(Wheeler, 2018). Brown soils are rich in fertility
and ideal for farming. Their dark hue, excellent texture, and low pH make them suitable for
agricultural use.
 Texture:

A sol's texture is its feel to the touch. The measurements of The quantities of sand, clay, and
silt in soil determine its texture. The soil's ability to hold onto moisture, encourage root
development, and allow excess moisture to escape is influenced by its texture. Loam soil has
around 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay. The right ratio for soil texture is this one. Brown
earths are included in this group. Biomass production, ecosystem resilience and restoration,
water purification, pollutant detoxification, and the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulphur, and water are the five processes that uniquely sustain terrestrial life. They also have
excellent aeration and drainage qualities. Brown earths and other loam soils are excellent for
farming(Wheeler, 2018).

 Colour:
Because brown earths contain a lot of humus, the soil becomes darker and promotes
healthy crop development. Darker soils absorb more light, whereas lighter-colored soils
reflect sunlight. As a result, the earth heats up much more quickly, promoting crop
development and seed germination. Another crucial element in the humification process
is heat(Wheeler, 2018).
 PH Value:
A substance's acidity is measured using the PH scale. Agriculture requires a pH of 6.5,
which is somewhat acidic. Overly acidic soil is deficient in calcium and potassium, two
elements necessary for healthy growth, and has few of the organisms needed for
humification. Peaty soils with a pH of less than 4 are considered to be quite acidic and
are mostly found in western highland regions. They are often wet and have experienced
leaching. The ideal ph range for brown earths is between 5 and 7, which is recognised to
be extremely fertile and support a wide variety of plant life(Wheeler, 2018).

1.9 Soil Properties and Soil Quality

The five purposes of soil according to Karlen et al. (1997) Soils are made up of complex
interactions between chemical, biological, and physical elements that determine their
characteristics and functional abilities.

19
1. Maintaining biological variety, activity, and output;

2. Controlling and dividing the flow of water and solutes;

3. Managing organic and inorganic pollutants by filtration, buffering, degradation,

immobilization, and detoxification; this includes industrial and governmental waste products
and atmospheric breakdown.

4. keeping nutrients and other elements in the earth's biosphere and cycling them; and

5. supporting socioeconomic structures and safeguarding artefacts linked to human

habitation.(Mandal, 1998).

Because of this, it is impossible to measure soil quality directly; instead, one must use
indicators—changes in the soil's characteristics or characteristics of the ecosystem—to infer
the quality of the soil. These indicators should reflect the soil's capacity to sustain biological
and plant productivity, as well as the condition of the environment and the health of people
and animals(Mandal, 1998). Effective indicators (5) exhibit minimal measurement error; (6)
possess sufficient short-term stability for measurement; (7) do not necessitate frequent
assessments; (8) are cost-effective; (11) engage the community; (2) combine the soil's
biological, chemical, and physical properties and processes; (6) respond to changes in
management techniques and show patterns over time; and (8) are reasonably [Link]
sites may need various indicators to assess the soil's quality, depending on the kind of land
or land use.(Mandal, 1998). Table 1 (Subba Rao et al., 2005) presents a compilation of the
physical, chemical, and biological aspects of soil proposed as indicators of soil quality. Soil
organic matter is a crucial universal indication of soil quality due to its interaction with
various soil components, which affects other soil characteristics. Qualitative in nature,
descriptive indications , may also be used to assess soil quality. Salt crusting, gullies, rills,
ripple lines, sand dunes, and standing or ponding water are a few examples of the descriptive
markers. Indicators of soil quality include included rooting patterns, plant vigour, crop yield
(grain or biomass output), and other crop characteristics(Mandal, 1998).because it offers
details on the interrelated soil properties of the whole system, crop yield is a significant
indicator, much as in a bioassay. Evaluations of soil quality are influenced by the scale
dimension in both space and time. The region under consideration might be as tiny as a
study plot or a point on the map, or it can be as big as a country or the whole planet(Mandal,
1998).Because of the influence of the environment, soil moisture levels, human activity,
plant development stage, and other variables that result in temporal variations in indicator
20
status, time periods are significant. To evaluate soil resources and track changes, Doran and
Parkin (1996) The fundamental soil values presented in Table 1 provide a basis for
computing a list of soil characteristics. These soil quality indicators are essential for
comparing different agricultural management strategies and assessing their sustainability. A
quantitative assessment of soil quality, taking into account the unique roles of soil within a
given land use and social context, distinctly delineates the threshold values of these essential
indicators(Mandal, 1998).

1.10 Soil properties and its restoration or conservation

Once the soil is beginning to be recovered, it is crucial to identify and define the key
limitations of its qualities in order to adapt suitable land use and cropping/farming methods.
Understanding soil degradation's processes, factors, and causes is crucial for successful
[Link] the cause-and-effect link is essential since removing the
contributing elements may halt the degradative trend and initiate the restoration
procedures(Mandal, 1998). To cultivate commercially advantageous crops and accelerate the

21
restoration process, it is essential to comprehend the permissible levels of salt, acidity, and
aluminium toxicity for certain crops and [Link] the kind of soil
deterioration is a crucial first step since the restoration strategy is contingent upon the type.
Methods for restoring soils damaged by intensive agriculture (Mandal, 1998). Below a
certain threshold quantity of soil organic content, the preservation of beneficial structural
features becomes increasingly difficult. Enhancing soil structure necessitates understanding
the requisite quantities of soil organic matter and achieving them through the use of suitable
crop and soil management techniques.

An additional efficacious strategy is to increase the variety and activity of soil fauna. This
may be accomplished by restricting wheel compaction to specified traffic zones, using zonal
tillage methods, and executing conservation tillage in the soil and water management
regions. These solutions alleviate the dangers linked to soil compaction(Mandal, 1998).

Table 1. 2. A simplified set of soil properties or attributes that can be computed from basic
input variables utilising pedotransfer functions or basic models

Sustained production in soils with fertility issues depends on proper nutrient management.
Accurate and quantitative information regarding soil capacity and intensity parameters is
necessary for the prudent use of both natural and applied nutrients as well as the response
functions for various cultivars, crops, and agricultural practices, which are essential for
enhancing agricultural output. For soils with low natural fertility, increasing nitrogen levels
is essential to achieve high yields and intensive land use. Exploring technological methods
for nutrient recycling is important to avoid overreliance on synthetic fertilizers. Enhancing
nutrient recycling and minimizing losses due to erosion, leaching, and volatilization are key
strategies. Additionally, restoring soil structure and improving nutrient cycling depend on
maintaining sufficient activity and diversity within the soil fauna. However, the specific
22
impact of soil fauna on soil characteristics remains uncertain. particularly in relation to
various agricultural and cropping practices. To comprehend how wildlife and soil
characteristics interact, soil scientists and ecologists must collaborate(Mandal, 1998).

To restore soils with crop-restrictive intrinsic features, one must also understand
fundamental processes and the cause-and-effect connection. The management of soil
resources sustainably depends on the restoration of damaged areas and the avoidance of
further erosion-related deterioration. Important policy concerns include relieving strain on
the marginal areas by fostering off-farm jobs and providing options for producing revenue.
Additionally, studies on erosion prevention strategies and how well they work in various
agro-eco zones are required. The reduction in plant-available water capacity and rooting
depth both restrict the productivity of degraded soils. Accelerated erosion also has the
significant impact of exposing unproductive subsoil. To create packages (s) of cultural
methods that will lessen these limitations, agronomic study is required(Mandal, 1998).

1.10.1 Soil Importance in Agriculture

Soil holds immense significance in agricultural planning due to its multifaceted role in crop
production. A key role of soil is nutrient supply, acting as a reservoir for critical components
essential for the growth of plants, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Understanding the nutritional makeup of soil is crucial for developing accurate fertilisation
techniques that cater to the individual requirements of crops, therefore enhancing yields.
Additionally, soil's water holding capacity is pivotal, especially in regions prone to dry
spells, as it determines the availability of moisture to plants. Different soil types possess
varying capacities for retaining water, necessitating tailored irrigation methods to ensure
optimal hydration for crops. Moreover, the physical structure of soil significantly influences
root penetration, aeration, and drainage. Well-structured soil with adequate tilth facilitates
root growth and enhances air and water movement, fostering optimal conditions for plant
development. Conversely, soil compaction or poor structure can impede root growth and
exacerbate drainage issues, adversely affecting crop productivity. A thorough understanding
of soil qualities is essential for good agricultural planning, informing choices on fertilisation,
irrigation, and crop selection to optimise yields and promote sustainable land use practices.

 Availability of nutrients

23
In order for plants to grow and develop, the soil retains essential nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphate, and potassium. The critical mineral composition of the soil has a direct impact on
crop health and productivity.

 Water Retention:

Soil's ability to retain water influences plant hydration, especially during dry periods.
Adequate water retention ensures sustained moisture levels for plant uptake, mitigating
drought stress and enhancing crop resilience to water scarcity.

 Root Support and Anchorage:

Plant roots are physically supported and anchored by soil, which makes it easier for them to
absorb water and [Link] structure and composition influence root development,
affecting plant stability, nutrient acquisition, and overall crop productivity.

 Soil Structure:

The arrangement of soil particles is referred to as soil structure. into clumps or aggregates.
Air circulation and effective root penetration are made possible by well-structured soil, and
water infiltration, promoting healthy root growth and nutrient uptake.

 pH Balance:

Two factors crucial to plant growth—microbial activity and nutrient availability—are

impacted by soil pH. Soil acidity or alkalinity affects plant performance and nutrient
solubility, and specific crop pH requirements are influenced by this. Appropriate
management of pH is crucial for crop health and soil fertility.

In decimal notation, the pH of the soil is the negative logarithm of the concentration of
hydrogen ions in soil [Link] from changing how compounds dissolve, Soil
microbe development and activity, nutrient availability and absorption, and overall pH all
provide clues as to the soil's acidity or alkalinity level. Between 6.5 and 7.0 is the mildly
acidic pH range is ideal for most plant growth. The plants that are referred to as loving acid
need a pH that is between 4.0 and 6.0. Very few plants can endure a pH of less than 4.0.
Most plants do not suffer from slightly alkaline soil (save some that prefer acid). However,
issues with nutrient availability linked to pH arise in soil that is very alkaline. In the event
that the soil pH stays too acidic or alkaline, several nutrients become inaccessible. The
nutrient availability of soil based on pH can be shown by the figure.
24
 Fig 1.4 Nutrient availability chart

The soil pH is significant since it affects microbial activity, Legumes' symbiotic nitrogen
fixing and root growth. All of these elements influence plant growth significantly. The
foundation of sustainable agriculture is soil organic carbon. Carbon is connected to organic
compounds in soil. The segment of soil that is organic and comprises decaying plant,
animal, and microbial entities is termed organic matter; however, This definition does not
include fresh and unprocessed plant materials that are found on the soil's surface, such as
straw and trash. In certain drier soils, soil carbon might additionally be present in inorganic
forms like carbonates or limes. Carbon (C) is included in the term total organic carbon,
which pertains to soil organic matter. The breakdown of animal and plant waste, soil
microorganisms, root exudates, and both living and deceased bacteria facilitates the soil's
absorption of organic carbon (OC).The principal energy source for soil microorganisms is
soil organic carbon. SOC levels are affected by soil depth. For example, alpine soil has a
surface soil percentage of around 10%, but desert soil has a proportion of less than 0.5%. If
there is 1% SOC above 30 cm soil level, 42 tons of SOC may be kept on one hectare of land.
The concentration of SOC is normally highest in the top layer and decreases as one descends
deeper into the soil profile. Organic carbon in the soil serves as the basis for fertility. It is
critical to the soil's biological, physical, as well as chemical fertility. As soil organic matter
breaks down, nitrogen, phosphorous, and other vital nutrients for plant growth are released.
SOC improves the capacity of soil particles to retain water, penetrate it any longer, exchange
gasses, encourage root growth, and be readily farmed by keeping them in stable aggregates.
Through regulating the quantity and kinds of soil residents that support vital processes like
nutrient availability and cycling, root development and plant nutrient absorption, burrow

25
formation, and even crop disease suppression, An important part of the soil food chain is soil
organic [Link], it may lessen the effects of dangerous chemicals like toxins and
heavy metals by functioning as a buffer, promoting the breakdown of dangerous pesticides,
and sorption of toxins and heavy metals.

1.10.2 Factors affecting SOC level in soil

Rainfall, temperature, vegetation, and type of soil all impact the soil's carbon content.
However, when the lands are cleared and used for agricultural production, these equilibria
are upset, and more reductions might happen as a result of management techniques. The
predominant reduction of SOC occurs within the first 10 cm of soil. Consequently,
agricultural land has reduced soil carbon levels compared to soil adorned with wild
vegetation. The potential for soil carbon storage is shown by this variation in SOC level.
Soil carbon levels in agricultural systems are often variable and influenced by management
strategies. Certain management techniques, such fallowing, cultivating, burning or removing
stubble, and overgrazing, may lower The amount of organic materials in the soil (SOC) by
decreasing inputs, accelerating the breakdown or doing both using organic materials in the
soil. Due to the rise of organic matter decomposition brought on by agricultural activities as
well as the greater soil moisture levels seen in fallowed soil, SOC decreases quickly during
fallowing. Numerous agricultural techniques and management strategies have the potential
to raise SOC levels by either boosting inputs or lowering losses. Composts, manure, and
other recovered organic materials are directly added may also enhance inputs. Due to its
improved soil and water conservation, conservation farming is quickly becoming more and
more popular globally. Agricultural soil is treated with organic additions such as composts,
plant waste, manure, and biosolids from sewage. Since they all have large levels of organic
carbon, they contribute more carbon to the system. By acting as organic fertilisers and
having a high plant nutritional content, several of these recycled organics help cut down on
the need for inorganic fertilisers. The physical characteristics, such as soil texture, colour,
lime status, and temperature, together with critical aspects like pH, electrical conductivity,
and soil organic carbon, are essential in determining the soil fertility status of a specific
location. This chapter considers the fluctuation of all these factors in the designated study
region of Kanyakumari district from June 2012 to May 2013 (study period I) and from June
2013 to May 2014 (study period II). The findings acquired were analysed and presented for
debate.

 Microbial Activity:
26
Soil harbors a diverse community of microorganisms essential for Disease suppression,
decomposition of organic materials and the cycling of nutrients. Beneficial soil bacteria
promote soil fertility, plant nutrient uptake, and ecosystem health overall, all of which
support sustainable farming methods.

 Soil Erosion Control:

The sustainability of the environment and agricultural productivity are seriously threatened
by soil [Link] soil structure, cover crops, and conservation practices mitigate
erosion by reducing soil runoff and preserving soil integrity, safeguarding arable land for
cultivation.

 Soil Organic Matter:

Carbon sequestration, moisture retention, and soil fertility are all improved by soil organic
matter. The decomposition of organic matter improves soil structure, releases vital nutrients
for plant growth, and boosts the soil's ability to hold water, all of which support
environmentally conscious practices and sustainable agriculture.

 Soil Texture:

Soil texture refers to the amounts of sand, clay, and other soil [Link] influences nutrient
availability, drainage, and water retention, all of which impact crop development and
management strategies. Comprehending soil texture may enhance irrigation, fertilisation,
and soil management strategies to improve agricultural productivity.

1.11 Agriculture Planning

Planning for agriculture is the process of developing policies to make sure that farming will
continue in a certain area for a predetermined amount of time. It pertains to the sustainable
use of agricultural resources, directs growth away from active agricultural communities,
reduces regulatory obstacles, fosters the development of appropriate infrastructure, and
generates new opportunities(Cardín, 2008). Agricultural planning establishes a policy
framework that safeguards and preserves farmland for current and future generations while
promoting the industry's economic development. It may happen locally, regionally, or at the
state level(Cardín, 2008).Planning initiatives usually employ land use regulations, such as
agricultural preservation zoning and subdivision restrictions, to counteract the danger of
conversion. However, by preparing for agriculture, farmers and ranchers can also take

27
advantage of growing customer bases and shifting consumer tastes to transform challenges
into opportunities(Cardín, 2008).Support for value-added agricultural diversification and
investments in cold storage, packaging, and processing facilities are a few of examples. By
maintaining farms' economic viability, policies that support local sourcing, on-farm
processing, direct-to-consumer sales, farm-to-institution sales, and/or agritourism options
help counteract the danger of development(Cardín, 2008)Plans are often the final product of
planning procedures; they are detailed papers that outline objectives and provide methods
for achieving them. In a comprehensive or master plan, farms and farmland may be covered
separately, incorporated into more conventional parts (including natural resources and
economic development), or both. Planning procedures in several states and localities are
only concerned with preserving or advancing agriculture(Cardín, 2008).

1. Soil Analysis:

Effective agricultural planning requires a fundamental understanding of soil

characteristics. The development and yield of crops are significantly affected by the
soil's texture, fertility, nutritional composition, and moisture retention ability. An area's
best crops may be identified with the use of soil analysis, which also directs the
application of fertilizers and irrigation techniques(Cardín, 2008).
2. Crop Selection:

Agricultural planning involves selecting suitable crops for cultivation based on market
demand, climatic conditions, and soil characteristics. Crop rotation and diversification
are prevalent strategies used to mitigate the risk of pests and diseases while optimising
resource utilisation.

3. Climate and Weather Considerations:

Agriculture planning takes into account the prevailing climate conditions and weather
patterns. This includes understanding temperature variations, rainfall distribution, and
the likelihood of extreme weather events. Farmers can adapt their practices based on
seasonal variations to minimize risks and maximize yields(Cardín, 2008).

4. Water Management:

Sustainably managed water resources are essential to agriculture. Planning for

agriculture include water conservation, rainfall collection, and irrigation techniques.

28
 Consistent agricultural production is ensured and the effects of water constraint are
lessened with proper water management(Cardín, 2008).

1.12 Geographical Study

Geographical studies focus on physical places and the ways in which people engage with
their environments. Geographers study the human-made features of our planet's surface and
the many different human cultures that call it home. Regional and geographical influences
on people are also considered, along with the ways in which human civilization interacts
with the natural world. Objects' whereabouts, origins, and historical development are the
primary foci of geographical inquiry. Three Distinct Regions Physical features of the planet
and its atmosphere, as well as the ways in which human actions affect and are affected by
these features, are the primary foci of geographical studies. There are essentially three main
geographic strands:(Zimmerer, 2020).

1. Nature and its impacts on humans and their surroundings constitute physical
geography.
2. Secondly, human geography is all about people.
3. Environmental geography: the ways in which humans may either damage or preserve
the natural world (Zimmerer, 2020).
 Mineral resources

The mineral resources of soil and beach sand are formed by the weathered parent rocky
materials such as garnet biotite gneisses, teri sand (reddish brown), charnockite, garnet and
fissile hornblende biotite gneisses sediment transportation in the southern coastal area. The
mineralization of this area is restricted to metagabbro or metanorite bodies occurring as
concordant bodies within garnetiferrous quartzofeldspathic gneisses and charnockite, as
stringers, specks, veins and segregations. Moreover, the pyrrhotite forms the prominent
sulphide mineral followed by chalcopyrite, pyrite, molybdenite, pentlandite, erythrite and
magnetite, in the order of abundance. Minor and sporadic occurrences of graphite are
noticed as stringers, specks, flakes and disseminations in garnetiferrous quartzofelspathic
gneisses are found in the upland region and plain surface near south of Arumanallur and
Tadagamalai area. Flakes and streaks of molybdenum are seen associated with pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite and pentlandite in the metanorite bends and lenses along the foot hills in the
eastern part. The charnockite and the associated granulite rocks occur between Kalial and
Marthandam regions. The main bottleneck for active exploitation in this belt is that the

29
deposits occur amidst rubber estates and thus likely to result in environmental hazards. The
beach sands are enriched with heavy mineral concentrations including ilmenite, rutile,
garnet, zirconite and monazite which occur as localized pockets along the coast especially at
Manavalakurichi in the mouth of Valliyar river and Kodimunai coast (Source: GSI
published database 2010).

 Land use and Land cover

Land use pertains to the manner in which people use land for many purposes. Land cover is
defined as the existence of surface features in a certain location. The land use arrangement
and vegetation characteristics have the greatest impact on the fertility condition of Soil 33 in
the region. The geographical distribution of soil nutrients may be directly impacted by
changes in land cover and use. This may occur as a result of erosion, runoff, land
degradation, deforestation, etc. This may subsequently modify soil fertility on both regional
and local scales over an extended period. Assessing soil fertility in the study area requires an
understanding of land use and land [Link] 48.9 % of the land area is under cultivation
in Kanyakumari district and 32.5% of the area consists of forest cover. The area about 240
km2 of the agricultural land depends on irrigation sources like river, dam and water bodies
for cultivation purpose. 44.0% of the land is used for horticultural crops, with rubber taking
up the majority of this area. 21% of the district's total cultivated land is dedicated to the
cultivation of coconuts, another important crop. Of the total amount of land available, 2.5%
is unsuitable for agriculture and 0.08% is fallow land that is suitable for cultivation.
Deciduous forest cover, tree plantations, agriculture, water bodies, and settlements are the
five categories of land use and land cover—are present in the chosen research region. About
the 42 % of total area covers forest vegetation which includes evergreen deciduous, semi
deciduous and shrub vegetation present along valley region in northwest, northeast and hilly
terrain in the northern part. In the middle-west and east regions of the research area, the
steep, sloppy surface is lined with forest plantations that produce tea and [Link]
activities occur mainly in central part along the river bank and in southern plain surface.
Fallow and barren landforms are located among the cultivable lands. The water bodies are
distributed predominately in all parts of the area in the form of river, streams, canals,
reservoir, lake and ponds.

Settlements and built-up areas are classified as urban, semi-urban, or rural. Settlements are
abundantly scattered along the middle half of the river bank as well as southern plain region.

30
In general, the study area is hilly terrain which covers dense forest in the northern side and a
real extent of middle and southern parts are found to have barren land, crop cultivable land,
dry crop land, rocky out crop, hill covered shrubs and medium deciduous forest, etc. The
rivers and major tributaries flow from north to south direction along the central part of the
area. Isolated patches of barren rocky and stony waste land are spread over the agricultural
areas in western and southern parts. The water from the reservoirs and lakes form the
primary source for domestic, irrigation and industrial supply.

 Climatic condition
The climate of this region is sub humid. The closeness to the sea, the waning height of
the Western Ghats, and the north-east and south-west monsoon winds are the main
climatic influences in the district. The weather in January and February is mostly dry
with some humidity. The sea wind has a smoothing impact in the coastal region. It's
scorching summertime till June.

1.12.1 Importance of Geological Mapping

Geological mapping is essential in the Earth sciences since it offers critical insights on the
composition, structure, and history of the Earth's surface. Through rigorous analysis of rock
formations and mineral deposits, geologists may produce detailed maps that aid in
comprehending many facets of Earth's development. For instance, consider a case study
where geological mapping was employed to investigate an area prone to earthquakes.
Through this process, scientists were able to identify fault lines and accurately predict
potential areas at higher risk for seismic activity(Balasubramanian, 2017).

One significant advantage of geological mapping is its ability to provide essential

information for resource exploration. By analyzing rock types and structures, geologists can
identify potential locations for valuable minerals such as gold or oil reserves. This
knowledge allows mining companies to make informed decisions about where to invest their
resources and conduct further exploratory activities efficiently(Balasubramanian, 2017).

Furthermore, geological mapping contributes significantly to hazard assessment and

mitigation efforts. Understanding the distribution and characteristics of different rock units
helps identify regions susceptible to landslides or volcanic eruptions. By integrating data
from multiple sources like satellite imagery and ground surveys into comprehensive maps,
authorities can develop effective strategies for disaster prevention and response.

31
In many domains, geological mapping is very important since it provides insightful
information and facilitates decision-making. The significance of geological mapping for
farm planning in Maharashtra cannot be emphasized. Here are a few main points
emphasising its applicability:

 Soil Classification and Characterization:

A solid basis for precise soil categorization and characterization is provided by geological
mapping. Understanding the distribution of different soil types is made feasible by drawing
boundaries between the various geological formations that make up an area. Farmers and
agricultural planners need to know this knowledge since various crops need different soil
types to grow. Geological maps are essential resources for determining where certain crops
may be grown, making the most use of available space, and increasing agricultural
output(Balasubramanian, 2017).

 Water Resource Management:

It is necessary to comprehend the local geology in order to manage water resources

[Link], subsurface water conduits, and possible irrigation water sources may
all be located with the use of geological mapping. Planning sustainable water use plans,
guaranteeing dependable water availability for agricultural operations, and lessening the
effects of water shortage all benefit from this information.

 Natural Hazard Assessment:

In evaluating and reducing natural hazards including landslides, soil erosion, and floods,
geological mapping plays an important role. Authorities may take action to reduce the risks
connected with these hazards by mapping geological structures and identifying locations that
are vulnerable. This is especially important for safeguarding agricultural fields and
infrastructure against geological phenomena' negative consequences.

 Infrastructure Planning:

Transportation planning and development depend on geological mapping in addition to

agriculture. For the construction of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure projects, it is
essential to comprehend the geological makeup of a region. Construction is carried out in a
sustainable and safe way, minimizing the environmental effect, thanks to accurate geological
knowledge.

32
 Environmental Conservation:

The preservation of biodiversity and natural environments is aided by geological mapping.

Protecting vulnerable ecosystems and habitats may be the focus of conservation efforts by
selecting regions with distinctive geological characteristics. This is especially important
when considering Maharashtra, a state renowned for its varied ecosystems and
terrain(Balasubramanian, 2017).

1.13 Scope of the Study

In order to better plan agricultural operations in Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, this
geographical research examines soil parameters in great detail. The research seeks to
provide a detailed picture of the soil composition in the region by closely examining the
various soil characteristics, including nutrient content, texture, and mineralogy. To create
long-term agricultural planning plans that are both effective and efficient, this information is
vital. This project will use state-of-the-art methods like GIS mapping and remote sensing to
collect soil samples and analyze them accurately. Additionally, the research considers the
impact of climate, land use, and topography on soil [Link] hope that the results
will provide light on how to improve agricultural output via better crop choices, watering
strategies, and land management. In addition, the research goes beyond that to investigate
how soil qualities affect water resource management, general resistance to climate change,
and environmental sustainability. Nitrogen cycles continuously between organic and
inorganic forms, which is a complicated process that affects soil fertility. By breaking down
organic matter and animal manures, microbes improve soil nutrition via a process called
natural soil management. This process releases inorganic nutrients into the soil solution. The
loss and subsequent failure to replenish soil organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium, as well as other characteristics that contribute to soil fertility in the area, leads to
soil depletion. Inadequate soil management, too intense farming, allowing herd animals
unrestricted movement, and a lack of manure to replenish soils are further causes of soil
depletion.

Soil erosion is a problem in the selected study area due to many human activities, including
high population densities, widespread industrial logging, slash-and-burn farming, and
ranching. Soil salinization and nutrient bank mining are consequences of placer mining,
beach erosion, and saltwater intrusion, all of which alter soil fertility in coastal areas. to
where low productivity and poor agricultural production are due Researchers, agronomists,

33
and extension agents throughout the globe have made studying soil fertility their primary
objective for the purpose of sustainable nutrient management. Managing soil fertility is
crucial for boosting output in the long run. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and other
contemporary tools make the difficult task of determining soil fertility and the
environmental elements that influence it [Link] allows for the collection, storage,
retrieval, and analysis of soil fertility status over time, as well as the identification of
solutions for soil management and conservation. Therefore, this research was 24 conducted
to assess the soil fertility of specific locations in the Kanyakumari district, both in the
interior and along the coast, in an attempt to boost agricultural output.

1.14 Problem Statement

The agricultural productivity within Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, has major problems
owing to the complex and diverse soil qualities. The absence of a thorough grasp of these
soil properties impedes good agricultural planning, resulting in inadequate crop yields as
well as resource mismanagement. As a result, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive
geographical investigation of the complex links between soil qualities as well as agricultural
planning in Yavatmal. By analyzing the special problems provided by the existing soil
qualities, this research hopes to give useful insights for the creation of focused and
sustainable agriculture techniques adapted to the unique circumstances of Yavatmal District.

1.15Objective
1. To evaluate the spatial variability of soil parameters in selected areas of yavatmal to
improve precision agricultural planning.
2. To analyse the effect of soil parameters on agricultural production variations in the
selected yavatmal districts.
3. To examining the soil parameters in the research region, assess the sustainability of
agricultural practices.
4. To develop a comprehensive soil database & mapping system to aid in informed
agricultural planning in yavatmal districts.

34
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This study of the literature looks into the current body of knowledge, investigating the
various soil properties in Maharashtra and their consequences for agriculture. This study
seeks to give a full knowledge of the soil attributes required for informed and sustainable
agriculture practises in the area by analysing prior research and conclusions.

District of
soil
Maharashtr
properties
a (Yavatmal)

Agriculture
Planning

Fig 2.1 Conceptual framework

G. L. Bagdi [Link] (2014) People’s participation in watershed management programmes:

Evaluation study of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra in India

One key tactic used by the Indian government Public participation is necessary to guarantee
the success of watershed management projects. The Government of India's Ministry of
Agriculture has set uniform guidelines for the planning, execution, and management of
watershed improvement projects, which calls for the participation of nearby beneficiary
farmers. Numerous watershed development projects were started on October 2, 2006, by the
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development to assist farmers in six economically
underprivileged districts of Maharashtra's Vidarbha area in [Link], it is necessary to
35
ascertain the extent of locals' involvement in programs for watershed management funded
by the government The number of participants in the Holistic Watershed Development
Program (NSHWDP), which is financed by NABARD, in the Vidarbha region of
Maharashtra was ascertained by a research carried out in 2011 and 2012. The investigators
in this research designed a thorough, organised three-point continuum schedule that covers a
number of topics related to local residents' participation in soil and water conservation for
watershed management initiatives. The degree of people's involvement was also calculated
using the People's involvement Index (PPI). Farmers in six chosen districts of Maharashtra's
Vidarbha area were personally interviewed to gather data for this [Link] to
research results, the percentage of persons who participated in planning was 63.7%,
execution was 57.7%, and maintenance was 75.1%. The design and implementation phases
of the watershed project exhibited a limited level of public engagement in the NSHWDP
across the six distressed districts of Maharashtra's Vidarbha region; however, the
maintenance phase experienced significant public participation.

Bhaskara Phaneendra [Link] (2017) Soil and land resource evaluation for rural
agricultural land use planning-A case study from hot semiarid ecosystem of Western
India Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

The needs of production limit contemporary farmers' ability to combine conservation efforts
with landscape management while tending to rural agricultural landscapes. Soil surveys,
photopedological interview walks, and farmer interviews were all part of the study process
in Lagadwal village, Dhule district, to gain insight into land usage, management, and
conservation initiatives. In order to show how the local farmers tend to the land on the steep,
The landscape photographs were researched and thematically classed to represent the
eroding hills that make up 30% of the area (>620m in height) and sustain the exceptionally
shallow Lagadwal and Budkhed series in the south of the settlement. The low hills, which
make up around 35% of the area, include drainage depressions and ridge lines that contrast
with the deep Lagadwal tola [Link] soil composition in these images of eroding midhill
landscapes, including gullies and landslip areas, ranges from the deeply developed On the
lower slopes are the Brahmasila and Gaikot series, while on the crests and side slopes are the
more shallow Lagadwal Thana [Link] farmers were oblivious to the fact that the
landscape changed over time due to both short-term financial hardships and conservation
efforts that were only partly successful. Photographs revealed the hidden realities of farming
on these crumbling, sharply sloping terrain, both highlighting the necessity for stringent
36
regulations on land management techniques and providing farmers with a chance to rethink
their methods for controlling agricultural production. The photographs weren't meant to be a
yardstick for land maintenance, but rather to give farmers an idea of how their land appears
from a landscape perspective.

B.P. Bhaskar [Link] (2018) Agropedological Approach for Rural Land Use Planning – A
Case Study from Lagadwal Village, Dhule District, Maharashtra, India

Concerns about a decline in agricultural production in Maharashtra's semi-arid rural districts

provided a chance to examine drought's impact and the challenges encountered by small-
scale farmers who persist in using inefficient practices. The primary objective of this
research was to ascertain the optimal soil types for crop cultivation in the region, while the
secondary objective was to explore methods for integrating livestock and agricultural
systems on a broader scale. To find out about crop-site compatibility, soil-water
conservation measures, and other agricultural issues, a cadastral survey was carried out in
the Lagadwal hamlet in the Dhule district using treatment-oriented land capacity
classification. After selecting five farmers using a soil map, we analyzed their income.
Results from a soil map analysis using 23 soil phases as mapping units reveal that 8.3% of
arable land requires summit stone walls, 25.3% necessitates hillside ditches on the shoulder
slope, and 9.0% demands foot hill benches and wide base terraces. According to studies
carried out on five farms, onions cultivated using a wide bed furrow method including hens
and cows produced 4.5 lakhs (in black soil) rather than 2.3 lakhs (in red soil). Every
program for rural development must include land resource management and planning.
Because of its negative connotation in relation to totalitarian regimes, the public views land-
use planning with suspicion. People living in economies that are centrally planned are
obligated to use their land according to the scientific consensus on its potential.

Nitin G. Patil [Link] (2015) Development of efficient farming system through land use
planning in Dhule district, Maharashtra, India

A collection of villages in the Sakri taluka of the Dhule district has implemented a soil-
based land use plan, situated in one of the most economically deprived regions of India. Our
objective via participatory study was to identify an effective agricultural system for
marginal, small, and medium-sized landholders with incomes below the federal poverty
threshold. In comparison to farmer-preferred varieties and crop husbandry, selecting a soil-
specific variety suitable for medium-textured soils increased rice yield by 43% (Bhogwati,

37
Karjat-3, and Phule Radha varieties), maize yield by 17-57% (Rajarshi varieties), pearl
millet yield by 30-57% (Shanti varieties), and soybean yield by 65-69% (JS-335 varieties).
When included into the agricultural systems of small- and medium-sized farmers,
horticulture (vegetables) increased employment by 128 to 599 man-days (46.9 to 63.7% of
total job creation) and contributed a benefit-cost ratio of 3.5 to 4.96. The study also
highlighted the significance of accessible community and common places for marginal and
small farmers to keep cattle. To enhance living in the semi-arid region, scientific strategies
for the use of land resources were proposed.

B. P. Bhaskar, Dipak Sarkar, [Link] (2014) Land Evaluation for Irrigation in Cotton
Growing Yavatmal District, Maharashtra

The Yavatmal district in Maharashtra, known for cotton cultivation, was the location of a
reconnaissance soil study conducted at a scale of 1:50,000. The survey's objective was to
collect data for a 48-unit soil map. In the southern and eastern portions of the Wani Valley,
on the sandstone/limestone capping, and on the basaltic landforms in the northern and
central areas, the map included 33 shrink-swell soil series associations. Expenses have piled
up for the district. Using the parametric approach and FAO symbol equations, these soil
mapping units were assessed for irrigation potential in the drought-prone Yavatmal area.
Eleven soil mapping units (274,744.3 hectares, or 20.22 percent) were deemed fairly
acceptable for drip irrigation due to moderate to severe erosion, marked stoniness on slopes
ranging from 5 to 8%, and moderate to sluggish subsurface [Link], surface
approaches were found to be appropriate for ten soil mapping units (188832.7 hectares, or
13.89 percent) located on moderate slopes with shrink-swell features. A number of
characteristics, including soil slope, surface stone cover, gravel, and roughness, made
surface and sprinkler watering systems less than ideal in this region. The primary variables
that circumscribed the use of drop irrigation were the concentration of calcium carbonate,
the subsurface permeability, and the alkalinity of the soil. Cotton, sugar cane, and wheat
were irrigated at regular intervals determined by the soil's ability to retain water and the
amount of water required each day The research showed that different crops required
different amounts of water at different intervals, with wheat requiring 8.9 ± 1.4 days, cotton
8.6 ± 1.4 days, and sugar cane 10 ± 1.6 days. By combining the GIS tool with assessment
methodologies and databases of land resources, we were able to identify the best irrigation
zones and calculate the optimal watering frequency for the region's main crops.

38
M. Karthik [Link] (2004) Brackish water aquaculture site selection in Palghar Taluk,
Thane district of Maharashtra, India, using the techniques of remote sensing and
geographical information system

This study identified potential locations for sustainable prawn farming using remote sensing
and geographic information systems. A satellite picture (IRS 1D LISS III FCC Print) was
used to ascertain the current The research region encompasses the coastal land Use trends of
Palghar Taluk in Maharashtra, India's Thane district It was assessed if mudflats and other
intertidal regions were appropriate for prawn farming, often known because brackish water
aquaculture. We gathered information on 37 aspects for various mudflat areas, classified
into six main categories: engineering, water and soil quality, infrastructure, weather, and
social constraints. The GRAMME++ GIS program allowed us to examine the information.
Using the weighted overlay approach in GIS, the prospective region was mostly classified as
very appropriate, okay, slightly acceptable, or unsuitable. Aqua farms now include 2.951%
of the entire study area of 20,431.034 hectares, with 0.377% deemed highly suitable,
9.873% acceptable, 1.772% somewhat suitable, 85.027% unsuitable, and the other regions
classified as inappropriate. To determine the relative importance of each area for future
growth, we partitioned the applicable space into eleven subcategories. Defended by
legislation. in 2004 The Elsevier Group Firma C.V. Aquaculture is now the fastest-growing
food company in the world, with an annual growth rate of 10%, outpacing all other major
food industries, which have expanded at rates of 2-3% in recent years. Penned shrimp have a
high export value, hence India has limited its brackish water aquaculture efforts to shrimp
farming (specifically Penaeus monodon). Disease transmission and environmental
degradation are only two of the numerous unintended effects of shrimp farming's unchecked
expansion that endanger the industry's long-term viability. In spite of this, India's enormous
unrealized potential makes it an attractive prospect as an aquaculture powerhouse.
Aquaculture makes use of only 13% of the 1.19 million hectares (mha) of brackish water
that is available. To advance brackish water prawn farming in a sustainable and scientific
way, it is essential to improve site selection and culture management.

Shrikant Maury [Link] (2019) Geophysical evaluation of soils and soil loss estimation in a
semiarid region of Maharashtra using revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE)
and GIS methods

This work's primary goal is to comprehend the connection between soil erosion brought on
by precipitation runoff and soil susceptibility, which is impacted by geoelectrical
39
[Link] order to enhance strategies for water and soil conservation and to
accelerate agricultural growth in the project area, it is crucial to carefully analyze the link
between soil geoelectric characteristics and soil loss estimations based on rain runoff. Soil
thickness and textural differences were determined using the resistivity sounding technique.
In lower locations along channels and in zones with structural weaknesses or cracks, the soil
depths may exceed 2.9 m, however geo-resistivity measurements showed that soil depths in
top areas were modest (0.30-0.80 m). Resistivity measurements between 20 and 48 Ω m
suggest corrosive to very corrosive characteristics in the sandy clay loam near the research
area's centre. The RUSLE model estimates a reduction in soil cover thickness of 0.63
mm/ha, accompanied by an average yearly soil loss of around 15.63 t/ha. Sandy loam loses a
lot of soil each year (2.1 mm/ha), in contrast to sandy clay loam, which loses very little (0.42
mm/ha). More than 7.1% of the area under scrutiny region does not have soil erosion issues,
according to the data. The soil loss risk categorizes the study region into sections. parts with
the lowest risk are 46.3%, portions with medium risk are 12.1%, sections with high risk are
4.3%, and sections with extreme danger are 2.4%. The regions with a coarse texture, shallow
soil depth, and a resistivity more than 48 Ω m should be given priority in soil conservation
efforts, according to our study.

Nisha Sahu [Link] (2015) High resolution remote sensing, GPS and GIS in soil resource
mapping and characterization-A Review

Knowledge on soil kinds, extents, and geographical distribution must be up to date and
precise in order to use natural resources effectively and sustainably. Soil surveys are now
more efficient than ever because to developments in GPS, GIS, and remote
[Link] the environment without sacrificing the region's overall growth is the
goal of sustainable resource management. When planning for the future, decision-makers
could reap benefits from using databases and state-of-the-art computer technology together.
While some studies have looked at regional or even bigger scales, the vast majority have
focused on local areas. Despite advancements, there is still room to use high resolution
satellites to their full potential in mapping and characterizing soil resources over a wide
variety of spectral, geographical, and temporal dimensions. This study seeks to assess the
current advancements in micro-level agricultural planning by analysing high-resolution data
from remote sensing instruments like GPS, GIS, IRS-P6 LISS IV, PAN, CartoSat-I, and
IKONOSAll across the world, ecosystems rely on soil, a nonrenewable resource that serves
several purposes. We can no longer meet our most fundamental requirements from the earth
40
since its limited resources have been overused to the point of depletion. The deterioration
and depletion of resources have been primarily caused by the increasing demand for energy,
industrial inputs, and raw materials on a worldwide scale.

Indrajit Dukare (2015) Physico-Chemical Assessment of Agriculture soils at Basmath

Tahsil of Hingoli district in Maharashtra

Field investigations of the chemical make-up of Basmath soil occurred between 2012 and
2013. To assess the soil quality of agricultural lands close to Basmath city in Maharashtra,
India, a thorough analysis was [Link] majority of the soil is composed of alluvial
soil. According to the information provided, the physical and chemical characteristics of the
soil showed varying [Link] researchers set out to find differences and similarities in the
physicochemical characteristics of this soil. The study looked at a variety of physical and
chemical factors in addition to the kind and condition of the [Link] used time-honored
techniques for soil analysis. The state of the soil has garnered a lot of attention throughout
the last ten years. More than 1,500 works mentioning soil quality may be found in databases
like the Soil Science CAB Abstracts Database (CAB International Publishing). The
majority of the attention has gone into soil quality and the quest for accurate methods of
measuring it. The apparent relevance of soil in agricultural productivity and in purifying air
and water has lately brought soil quality into prominence. The importance of soil for both
environmental quality and production is highlighted by this.

Chadar BR, Vaidya PH, [Link] (2018) Characterizations, classifications and soil site
suitability evaluation of soils of farm College of Agriculture, Latur, Maharashtra

The College of Agriculture, Latur Farm, has many soil types, including as clay and silty clay
loam, characterised by various depths and blocky features that range from granular to sub-
angular. They may be an exceedingly dark hue of Soil bulk densities varied from 1.24 to
1.79 mg m-3. The volume of water accessible to plants rose from 58.29 mm to 228.0 mm as a
function of soil depth. Soils with a pH between 7.6 and 8.51 exhibit a moderate to mild
alkaline reaction. In terms of electrical conductivity, the soil is below 1.0 dSm-1. Soil
organic carbon concentrations range from around 0.12% to about 0.80%, which is very low
to quite high. Extremely calcareous soils have a calcium carbonate concentration of 12.2 to
45.6% between 30 and 150 cm, while moderately calcareous soils have a composition of 7.5
to 21.4% up to 30 cm. Soil CEC was found to range from 31.30 to 63.30 cmol (p+) kg-1. In
every profile, the cation dominance order is as follows: potassium, magnesium, sodium, and

41
calcium. Saturation percentages of bases ranged from 93.47 to 98.89. Typic Ustorthents,
Vertic Haplustepts, Calcic Haplusterts, and Calcic Haplustepts are the four soil types
identified by the research region. Soybeans and pigeon peas cannot be grown (N1) on Typic
Wetlands soils due to limitations in pH, depth, calcium carbonate, and PAWC. However,
owing to the severe limitations caused by soil depth, pH, and calcium carbonate, the existing
state of affairs at Calcic Haplustepts is neither acceptable nor appropriate. In contrast to the
Vertic Haplustepts variety's barely passable (S3) to moderately (S2) soils, the Calcic
Haplusterts variety's were excellent for pigeon pea and soybean (S2).

S.K. Reza [Link] (2017) Characterizing spatial variability of soil properties in alluvial
soils of India using geostatistics and geographical information system

Alluvial soils, regarded as ideal for growing grains, cover most of India's farmable territory.
The variables sought for study in this inquiry of alluvial floodplain soils near Kadwa block,
Katihar district, Bihar, India, were soil pH, organic carbon, available phosphate, available
zinc, and mineralisable nitrogen. From the research region, 85 soil samples were randomly
selected to represent the plow layer (0-25 cm below surface). A soil pH of 4.4 to 8.4,
biological carbon levels of 0.20% to 1.20%, nitrogen levels of 141 to 474, phosphorus levels
of 2.2 to 68.2, organic carbon levels of 107 to 903 kg ha-1, and zinc levels of 0.22 to kg-1
were all within the specified ranges. Soil pH had the shortest coefficient of variation at
11.3% and accessible P at 94.3%. Findings indicated that OC was best represented by a
linear model, pH and K by a Gaussian model, and N, P, and Zn levels by an elliptical
approach. All soil properties, with the exception of pH and accessible K, were somewhat
affected by geography (25-57%), according to the nugget/sill ratio. A regular distribution of
soil quality was not observed. Soil nitrogen variable maps in alluvial soils may be reliably
generated using the geostatistical method.

N. Walke [Link] (2012) GIS-based multicriteria overlay analysis in soil-suitability

evaluation for cotton (Gossypium spp.): A case study in the black soil region of Central
India

The soils in the study region were categorized as Entisol, Inceptisol, or Vertisol according to
the findings. Eight separate soil series and sixteen linkages between them were found.
According to the research, soil associations D-E are classified as marginally to moderately
suitable, C-D are considered acceptable to a degree (S3), and E-F, F-G, G-H, and H-G are
categorised as moderately suitable (S2). The cultivation of cotton on soils A–B yields

42
unsuitable (N2) soils, whereas soils B–C vary from not suitable (N2-S3) to marginally
suitable (N2). Research indicates that 966.7 hectares, including 49.1% of TGA, are
designated as S2, indicating their suitability for cotton cultivation. S3-S2 states that 469.9
hectares, or 23.8% of TGA, are just slightly suitable. S3 soils, which are fairly suitable for
growing cotton, cover around 35.2 hectares (1.8%) of TGA. Cotton cannot be grown on
172.3 ha (8.7% of the land) because of unchangeable characteristics such soil depth and
slope, and on 326.9 ha (16.6% of the land) because of the same reasons. The results showed
that soil suitability assessment for cotton might be greatly enhanced by the use of
multicriteria overlay analysis of soil thematic characteristics based on GIS.

Ajay S Solanki [Link] (2021) Effect of ground water quality on soil characteristics in
Pentakali command area of Buldhana district of Maharashtra

Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth's Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Department in Akola, Maharashtra, was the site of the current study, which lasted from 2017
to 2019. Its working title is Assessment about ground water quality in Pentakali command
region of the Buldhana district of Maharashtra. Forty open wells in the Buldhana district of
Maharashtra were tested before, during, and after the monsoon season to determine the
impact of irrigation on soil quality. Researchers from nine different villages in the
Pentakalicommand region took samples from forty open wells. Although post-monsoon
irrigation is ideal, the study indicated that ground water had a stronger influence on soil
during the pre- and monsoon seasons. To make sure groundwater is safe to drink, tests
should be run on it all year round.

Mostafa Mohamed Selim (2020) Introduction to the Integrated Nutrient Management

Strategies and Their Contribution to Yield and Soil Properties

Agric planners throughout the world have significant challenges in ensuring food security,
reaching the zero-hunger objective, and reducing poverty. Accomplishing this goal will need
immediate improvements to a wide range of agronomic practices that significantly impact
crop growth and yield. Here, we have a simple solution to the problem of using too much
chemical fertilizers and not enough organic manure. What we need is the right combination
of microorganisms (INM) and the lowest effective dosage of organic and inorganic
fertilizers. Recent studies by a number of academics indicate that a combination of chemical
fertilisers and organic manure may significantly improve crop yield stability and maintain
higher yields. In addition to improving the soil's physical properties, INM makes nitrogen,

43
organic carbon, and energy readily available to soil microbes, which aids in their growth. It
also has far-reaching consequences for subsequent harvests. Combining the best features of
both sources is the primary objective of INM in order to accomplish environmentally
sustainable practices. This blend can be used to reduce the massive usage of chemical
fertilizers, preserve soil fertility, maximize yield and profitability, and ultimately reduce
pollutants. Additionally, it can aid in striking a balance between crop nutrient needs and
fertiliser inputs. Lastly, INM is a tool that can reduce overall expenses, improve soil
physiochemical and physiochemical circumstances, create an optimal environment, remove
obstacles, protect soil nutrient balance, and identify safe ways for the elimination of
agricultural waste. It can also provide plants with the calories they need at a reasonable cost.

R. Lal,(2008), Soils and sustainable agriculture. A review

In this comprehensive review, the historical focus of soil science on food production and
civil engineering structures is acknowledged, spanning the 19th to the 20th century. The 21st
century brings forth new demands on soil resources, including the imperative to increase
agronomic production for an additional 3.5 billion people, accommodate shifts in dietary
habits, establish energy plantations, restore degraded soils for biodiversity enhancement,
sequester carbon, improve water use efficiency, and create reserves for environmental
preservation. This multifaceted agenda underscores the need for an interdisciplinary
approach, fostering collaboration between soil scientists and experts from diverse fields.
Addressing global challenges requires integrating knowledge from chemists, physicists,
biologists, engineers, climatologists, geneticists, economists, and social scientists,
emphasizing the pivotal role of soil science in shaping a sustainable future.

Evan J. Coopersmith [Link] (2014) Machine learning assessments of soil drying for
agricultural planning

Heavy machinery agriculture depends on the hydrologic cycles of wetting and drying over
unpaved [Link] may get entangled in wet soil, leading to costly delays.
Inexperienced users or those who must remotely analyse locations before to travelling may
find it difficult to consistently assess soil conditions, even if experienced users may do so
before entering off-road regions. Remotely monitored in situ sensors are one way to measure
dryness. Unfortunately, the expense, complexity, and sometimes impossibility of making
personal trips to distant areas make property owners reluctant to install sensors. our study
overcomes these restrictions by remotely monitoring soil conditions using just publicly-

44
accessible data. At a location in Urbana, Illinois, statistical estimates of soil dryness are
provided via classification trees, boosted perceptrons, and k-nearest-neighbors algorithms.
Both the boosted perceptron and k-nearest-neighbor algorithms performed with accuracy
between 91% and 94%, with the majority of misclassifications falling within computed error
margins. These calculations show that with simply precipitation and potential evaporation
data, it is feasible to make relatively accurate estimates of the present soil conditions.
accessible worldwide thanks to satellite sensors. Agricultural management choices may be
facilitated remotely using this kind of method, saving time and money by eliminating the
need for massive ground-based sensory grids or on-site visits.

José Carlos Polidoro [Link] (2020) Potential impact of plans and policies based on the
principles of conservation agriculture on the control of soil erosion in Brazil

Studies on land use and coverage show that 30.5% of Brazil's land area was used for the
production of raw minerals, food, textiles, and [Link] erosion is a major problem that
reduces agricultural yields and animal health. This study helps bridge a knowledge vacuum
by teaching people and politicians how to apply zero tillage sustainable farming concepts
and integrated crop-livestock-forest strategies to combat this issue. We forecasted the
growth of the CA region by 2030 using basic linear models and Holt's damped approach for
ZT/[Link] conventional tillage as well as monocropping have the potential to cause
soil erosion of 3.0 billion tonnes per year, taking 2017 land usage and cover into account.
Taking into account merely the cost of replacing depleted nutrients, the expected yearly
economic impact is $15.7 billion USD. A comprehensive soil survey and interpretation
program called PRONASOLOS is being implemented throughout the country with the goals
of lowering emissions of greenhouse gases, increasing agricultural production, and
controlling water-induced soil erosion. Estimates for the yearly economic impact of
iCLFCA's and ZT/CA's adoption of CA principles to reduce soil erosion were half a billion
and 1.5 billion US dollars, respectively, in 2015. The anticipated expansion of the CA region
was 34.4 Mha for ZT/CA and 25.4 Mha for iCLF-CA. Thanks to the doggedness of farmers
and other stakeholders as well as the effectiveness of government programs and efforts, the
application of CA principles in Brazil has yielded positive results.

Wei Ouyang [Link] (2018) Combined impacts of land use and soil property changes on
soil erosion in a mollisol area under long-term agricultural development

45
The proliferation of agriculture induces several types of soil erosion. In areas where
agriculture has been conducted for a prolonged duration, the understanding of how Soil
management and watershed agriculture depend on an understanding of how soil
characteristics and changes in land use affect soil erosion. This study used a modified
Universal Soil Loss Equation to study the consequences of soil erosion and its regional and
temporal trends. Data on land use was evaluated using the Landsat series, while data on soil
characteristics was obtained by laboratory testing, field sampling, and calculations from the
SPAW (Soil-Plant-Atmosphere-Water) model. The mean erosion modulus decreased
throughout an extended duration of agricultural development, from 187.7 t km−2 a−1 in
1979 to 158.4 t km−2 a−1 in 2014. The predominant alterations in land use patterns were
extensive wetland reduction and the conversion of rice fields. The predominant soil types
had a reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) ranging from 1.11% to 43.6%, with
most soils transitioning from silty or clay loam to loam. 87.4% of the change in soil erosion
was accounted for by the rapid expansion of Ks values, the minor loss of 14.0 km² of forests,
and 49.8 km² of paddy fields. In this study area, the growth of paddy fields greatly reduced
soil erosion, even though changes in the physical and hydrological properties of the soil
suggested that rates of soil erosion should have increased. The data indicated that changes in
soil parameters have a lesser influence on soil erosion compared to modifications in land
use. According to this study, paddy fields should be improved and dry land agriculture
should be managed with caution. The outcomes will enhance the targeting and management
of watershed agriculture.

A. B. McBratney & M. J. Pringle,(1999) Estimating Average and Proportional

Variograms of Soil Properties and Their Potential Use in Precision Agriculture

This study introduces 'average' and 'proportional' variograms as tools for characterizing this
variability, drawing upon a comprehensive literature review. Multiple soil properties are
analyzed to compare variability magnitudes and construct average variograms. For
properties exhibiting Variograms may be inferred from mean values based on the
proportionality between mean squared and variance. With precision agriculture, these
average and proportionate variograms provide a tactical method for organising the best soil
sampling and management plans. The study recommends grid soil sampling with a
resolution of 20×20 meters at intervals of 20–30 meters for site-specific management,
depending on the characteristic of interest. The relative size of variograms to the average is
used to inform differential soil management decisions in a decision-support graphic. Despite
46
these insights, further research is essential to expand the database supporting these findings
and refine proportional variogram parameters for site-specific applications. This study's
approach and findings provide significant insights for Precision Agriculture practitioners,
enhancing the knowledge of soil property variability and facilitating the creation of
educated, cost-effective management plans.

Chiranjit Singha,(2016), Land suitability evaluation criteria for agricultural crop

selection: A review

This literature review examines the critical importance of land suitability analysis in
determining agricultural cropping patterns and planning initiatives. The evaluation entails
assessing the suitability of a region for certain agricultural applications, including soil and
topographical characteristics. Fuzzy Logic, Remote Sensing, Geographic Information
Systems, and Multi-Criteria Evaluation Combined with the Analytical Hierarchy Process
facilitates decision-making for crop land replacement, hence promoting increased
agricultural productivity. The paper rigorously evaluates many multi-criteria studies,
highlighting the efficacy of Fuzzy Logic linked with MCE in a GIS context for the creation
of land suitability maps. Emphasizing the significance of GIS, this study underscores its
contribution to expedited planning processes, providing quick access to extensive
information and revealing valuable relationships, patterns, and trends for efficient land use
suitability assessment. The methodological approach integrates RS-GIS and Fuzzy-Logic
within an MCE framework, offering decision-makers a superior database and guide map for
informed agricultural planning. The findings stress the importance of land suitability
assessments in agriculture development, guiding decision-makers to identify locations most
suitable for specific agricultural uses, thus enhancing overall planning efficiency.

C. W. Raczkowski, J. P. Mueller, Warren J. Busscher, M. Bell, M. L. McGraw (2012),

Soil physical properties of agricultural systems in a large-scale study

In responding to the question of whether or not From small-scale field experiments to

agricultural decision-making, the physical features of soil in large-scale agricultural contexts
were examined in a comprehensive literature review. The research was conducted at the
Centre for Environmental Farming Systems in Goldsboro, North Carolina, and it used five
distinct treatments: organic crop production in plantation forestry woodlots, integrated crop-
animal, abandoned field succession, and best management techniques. Soil physical
properties including total porosity, micro- and macroporosity, bulk density, saturation

47
hydraulic conductivity, water-stable aggregation, and field capacity were comprehensively
measured from 1999 to 2007. Consistent and easily understandable results were produced by
the experiment, which highlighted key distinctions between the various management
systems. Soil physical parameters remained similar over time in tilled systems (BCT and
OCP), but in non-tilled systems (BNT, PFW, and AFS), there were noticeable differences,
such as increased microporosity, decreased overall porosity, greater bulk density, and
enhanced field capacity. Soil physical parameters changed after grazing in the combined
crop-animal sub-treatments. The methodology of the research, which included extensive
field investigations and careful sampling, supported the conclusions' dependability. Finally,
the results highlight the need for large-scale research to develop sustainable agricultural
recommendations by providing important insights into the long-term effects on soil physical
characteristics of different agricultural management techniques.

Yuxin Ma, Budiman Minasny, Chunfa Wu,(2017) Mapping key soil properties to
support agricultural production in Eastern China

At a spatial resolution of 90 meters, this study modelled and mapped a variety of soil
properties, including texture, pH, and soil organic matter content, over a 21 million-hectare
area in Eastern China using publicly available covariates (such as DEM, Landsat, climate,
and radar data) in addition to 28,95 legacy topsoil observations. This report presents the
findings of the modelling and mapping. Regression Kriging and a Cubist decision tree
model were used throughout the whole modelling [Link] on the findings, it was
determined that the RK technique performed very well in terms of forecasting the areas in
which human activities would have an impact on soil variables such as pH and organic
matter content. In addition, the features of the climate and the data from the DEM that were
broken down into various geographical scales were shown to be the most significant
predictors in this particular field of research. It was discovered, on the basis of the soil data
that is already available, that the present technique has the potential to be easily extended
over the whole of China as part of the GlobalSoilMap project.

A. López-Castañeda,(2022)Digital Mapping of Soil Profile Properties for Precision

Agriculture in Developing Countries

The urgent need for accurate soil profile mapping in low-income nations for
environmentally responsible farming is addressed in this research. The significance of soil
profile characteristics in directing precise amendment and fertilizer management is

48
emphasized in the introduction. This methodology generates a comprehensive soil fertility
map by integrating data from 44 soil profiles with a digital elevation model, converting the
profile features into surface units, and then using geostatistical analysis inside an
information system. The best spatial models were found to be provided by a number of
crucial properties, including pH, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and cation
exchange [Link] following soil fertility map illustrates varying fertility levels across
locations, categorised by CEC and pH values. Soil fertility classes are occupied surfaces in
the following order: extremely low, medium, high, and low. With the use of geostatistics, we
can transform soil profile taxonomic data into useful spatial and fertility information. This
method allows for precision agriculture in underdeveloped nations, marking a significant
leap forward from theoretical research to real-world implementation. To sum up, our study's
digital mapping technique offers a strong foundation for improving soil fertility management
and fostering sustainable agriculture practices in areas with limited resources.

M. Niemiec, M. Chowaniak,(2020), Selected Properties of Soils for Long-Term Use in

Organic Farming

This study evaluated the soil characteristics of a few chosen organic farms in relation to the
accomplishment of the overall and targeted goals of organic farming. Twenty-five (25) of
the fifty-five (55) organic farms that were chosen for the study also included conventional
animal farming, such as cow rearing. Following the collection of soil samples from each
farm, the following criteria were used to assess the appropriateness of the soil for
agriculture: pH, total nitrogen content, accessible potassium and phosphorus concentration,
and the amount of organic carbon are all taken into consideration. The majority of the soils
under study had extremely low or low levels of accessible phosphorus and mineral nitrogen,
which might upset the homeostasis of agroecosystems. These soils had a lot of potassium.
There is a considerable danger of chemical and biological deterioration based on the features
of the tested soils. Degradation will accelerate if measures aren't taken to raise the pH and
add more nitrogen and phosphorus to the solution.

A. Patangray, N. Patil, (2019) Soil Suitability Evaluation of Major Crops for

Sustainable Land Use Planning in Kupti Watershed, Yavatmal District, Maharashtra

This study assesses the soil suitability for two important crops in the Darwha block in the
Yavatmal district of Maharashtra, which is part of the Kupti watershed (11,257 acres).The
study is justified by the farmers' unwavering commitment to growing cotton and soybeans

49
throughout the kharif season, even though these crops have often failed—especially cotton
recently. In order to understand the farmers' crop choices, we also evaluated the traditional
sorghum crop, which has been destroyed from this region. Soil samples were collected
throughout the watershed using a 1:10,000 scale survey. For soil suitability, not only were
the NBSS and LUP criteria considered, but also the FAO requirements. The research reveals
that just 4079.0 hectares, including 36.2% of the entire watershed area, are classified as
fairly suitable (S2) for cotton cultivation. Additionally, 4006.0 hectares, representing 35.6%
of the TGA, are classified as moderately acceptable (S3), whilst 649.1 hectares, or 5.8% of
the TGA, are classified as not appropriate (N). Regrettably, no appropriate soils were
identified. Data for sorghum shows that 45.3% of the land area is in the S2 class, 26.6% is in
the S3 class, and 5.8% is in the N class, with 5096 ha falling into each of these categories.
The soybean suitability analysis classified 5138.0 According to the results, both the
traditional sorghum crop and the expansion of soybean-growing regions have historically
been popular. Cotton continues to be the crop of choice for farmers, even when the decline
of other crops has caused soil suitability ratings to decline. According to these results, cotton
would not flourish in the region under study. Alternative crop promotion and the breeding of
soil-specific cultivars are necessary steps toward overcoming bio-physical constraints.
Mulching, irrigation that saves lives, and broad bed furrow planting are all management
practices that they should adopt.

Todkari G.U,(2010), Agriculture Landuse Pattern in Solapur District of Maharashtra

This piece makes an attempt to look at the agricultural landuse pattern in the Solapur District
on a micro-level. The foundation of this inquiry is secondary data collected from secondary
sources. Factors influencing agricultural output include those of a physical, climatic, social,
technological, and organizational nature. crop combination areas within the Solapur District
during the 2004–2005 academic year. The agricultural phenomenon is typical for this year in
this area. To determine the crop data, Weaver's technique of crop combination was used.
The Solapur district is located in the southern part of the state of Maharashtra. Covering an
area of 14,84559 square kilometers, it maintained a population drop of 32.32% in 2001. The
district is divided administratively into eleven tahsils. A variety of factors, including
topography, climate, soil, and drainage, contribute to the agricultural landuse pattern in this
area. Extreme heat is a hallmark of summer. as a result of the district's placement in a dry
corner of Maharashtra. The quantity of rainfall varies from 200 to 600 millimeters
throughout the whole territory, from west to east. Thirteen different crops were considered
50
for the ranking and mix of crops. Sugarcane, gramme, cotton, jawar, wheat, bajara,
safflower, and maize are some of their primary crops. Through the process of determining
crop rankings and crop combinations, ten distinct crop combinations have been identified in
the Solapur District.

L. West, A,(2010), Soil survey and inventory of dynamic soil properties in the U.S.A

Giving a brief overview of the process and its layout is the goal of this study. As an
alternative to relying on temporal cues to deduce change, the DSP inventory design employs
spatial comparisons. Soil natural property uniformity throughout the landscape is assumed to
be sufficient for this inventory to identify changes caused by management techniques using
data gathered from duplicate plots in stable conditions. We looked at the ranks of an expert
panel to determine a restricted selection of DSPs. We chose these characteristics for
sampling due to their cost, relative simplicity of measurement by various persons, and their
known links Bulk density,

O. Denton,(2017), Assessment of spatial variability and mapping of soil properties for

sustainable agricultural production using geographic information system techniques
(GIS)

The study's goal was to record certain soil characteristics and evaluate how they changed
across Oyo State's LGR. Soil samples were collected using the cluster sampling approach
from three sites within a 10-kilometer LGU-governed territory. The soil samples underwent
laboratory analysis for organic carbon, pH, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, and
exchangeable bases after being air dried, ground, and sieved over a 2 mm screen. The
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP%), and cation
exchange capacity (CEC) were calculated. Subsequent to data standardisation, Classical
statistics were used to define the characteristics of the soil. The spatial variability of soil
parameters was shown by geo-statistical analysis inside a GIS framework, including kriging
interpolation techniques. The results indicated little change in pH (C.V = <15%), however
there was significant variability in accessible phosphorus and potassium (C.V = >35%), as
well as nitrogen, CEC, OC, SAR, and ESP (C.V = 34-15%). Soil components having the
highest coefficients of variation showed the largest variance. The soil's parent material and
the diverse management strategies used at the study site are the principal elements
influencing these differences in chemical characteristics.

51
F. Bautista,(2021), geostatistical analysis of soil properties of the karstic sub-horizontal
plain of the yucatan peninsula

Finding important soil qualities for zoning purposes in precision agriculture was the goal of
this research. We measured and georeferenced organic carbon, bulk density, rockiness,
particle density, silt, sand, and other soil characteristics, as well as depth, clay, and field
capacity, in a 25 m² plot that was split into 54 quadrants. Geostatistical investigations
indicated strong correlations and ideal adjustments for bulk density, particle density,
rockiness, and organic [Link] clay content and field capacity were diminished. The
various types of soil were more readily discernible by the use of probabilistic maps
depicting soil depth. Efficient precision agriculture in karstic environments requires precise
parcel zoning based on organic matter content and depth.

Peng-Tao Guo,(2011) Effects of land use and topographical attributes on soil

properties in an agricultural landscape

T. Zubkova,(2022), geopolitical prospects for soil use

Examine the historical relationship between agricultural practices, societal progress, and soil
fertility; stress the critical role that rich soils played in the We examined soil-landscape
connections that are critical for This study, which concentrated on an agricultural area in
southwest China, examined sustainable on-field [Link] area mostly consisted of
paddy fields and vegetable agriculture. Topographical markers were derived from 120
places where samples were collected using a digital elevation model with a precision of 2
[Link], organic matter, ammonium-nitrogen, accessible potassium,
exchangeable calcium, and exchangeable magnesium may vary significantly depending on
the utilization of land and topography, according to analyses of variance and Pearson
correlations. When contrasted with vegetable fields, paddy fields showed lower levels of
nutrients and phosphate and greater levels of magnesium, potassium, calcium, and pH. Soil
redistribution was shown to be mostly controlled by the relationship between topography
and land use, according to management techniques. This highlights the need of taking these
interactions into account in regional soil evaluations.

evolution of civilizations. Amid contemporary challenges like climate change, epidemics,

and environmental issues, the reliance on guaranteed harvests has shifted towards
greenhouse complexes utilizing soil substitutes and various substrates. The global soil
pollution crisis further complicates the production of ecologically clean agricultural products
52
in natural settings. Addressing these challenges necessitates the emergence of medical soil
science, focusing on biotic and abiotic factors influencing the cultivation of environmentally
friendly plant products. Notably, despite the historical preference for fertile soils, present-
day European civilizational centers thrive in regions with initially low-fertility soils,
emphasizing the importance of ecological soil functioning in the face of modern agricultural
complexities.

Amusan,(2006), Assessment of changes in selected soil properties under different land

use in obafemi awolowo university community , ile-ife , nigeria

In Ile-Ife, Nigeria, at the Teaching and Research Farm of Obafemi Awolowo University,of
an investigation into the ways in which certain soil properties changed in response to
different agricultural land uses. Six observation sites were used to measure bulk density,
organic matter content, soil pH, available phosphorus, legume fallow, herbaceous weed
fallow, cassava-cowpea intercropped plot, secondary forest, and continuous maize-soybean
plot. These sites represented different land uses. There were notable variations in soil
properties, including a lower pH, a higher amount of organic matter, and available
phosphorus, when comparing continuous arable cultivation with legume fallow and
secondary forest. The significance of water erosion is emphasised in the research leaching,
and low organic matter levels on soil degradation. It also emphasizes the necessity for
sustainable methods like mixed cropping and cover crops to reduce these impacts.

53
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 General
The geographical analysis of soil attributes for agricultural planning in Yavatmal District,
Maharashtra, seeks to evaluate the varied qualities of the region's soil to improve
agricultural operations. The process entails extensive soil sampling at many sites throughout
the district, taking into account soil texture, composition, and nutrient concentrations.
Geospatial methodologies, including GIS mapping and remote sensing will be used to
analyse the collected data and create thorough soil maps.

The material used and method, adopted for geographical study of soil properties for
agricultural planning are presented in this chapter under the following subhead:

Writing the
report

Processing and Identifying the

analyzing data problem

Reviewing
Collecting data
literature

Choosing the Setting research

study design and
deciding on the objectives and
sample design hypotheses

Fig 3.1 Research Plan

Source: [Link]

54
In addition to being crucial for plant development, micronutrients are also crucial for a
balanced crop's nutrition. Although plants don't need much of them, they are just as vital to
plant nutrition as major and secondary macronutrients. They are often found in soil as
mineral components and accelerate plant metabolisms. Development may be constrained by
the deficiency of a single micronutrient in the soil, even when all other nutrients are present
in adequate quantities. Plants need the following micronutrients: iron, manganese, zinc,
copper, boron, chlorine, and [Link] nutrients may be harmful to plants and
other soil organisms in excess. It is important to consider the sufficiency of micronutrients in
soil due to the cumulative effects of prolonged and consistent cropping, reduced application
of animal manures, erosion, and land levelling, which have eliminated topsoil and caused
deficiencies in certain micronutrients. The minerals in the parent material and weathering
processes throughout time affect the availability of soil micronutrients to [Link]
to soil in cold, arid regions, the heavily degraded, leached soil in warm, humid climates has
decreased micronutrient concentrations. Each micronutrient has a wide range of
concentrations in the soil, therefore the total quantity of one element does not always
represent the amount that is accessible for plant absorption. The table provides information
on the average amount of micronutrients found in soil as well as their chemical forms and
sources. These elements are found in trace amounts in almost all soils via the organic
matter's structure and soluble organic acids. These micronutrient shortages are caused by
their insolubility rather than a lack of availability in the soil. The difference might be more
than 100%.

Table 3.1 Average amount of micronutrients present in soil.

55
 Table 3.2 Sources and chemical forms of micronutrients in soil

Many types of soil have an impact on the micronutrients that plants can get and
environmental conditions. The primary factors include temperature, moisture content,
nutrient interactions, pH level, organic matter concentration, and soil texture. The main
factor influencing micronutrient The accessibility of iron, manganese, boron, copper, and
zinc for plant uptake diminishes with increasing soil pH. The only element whose
availability increases with soil pH is molybdenum. A crucial determinant of micronutrient
availability to plants is soil organic matter. The presence of zinc and boron is reduced in
sandy soils characterised by low organic matter concentration. Iron is naturally chelated by
organic materials, which keeps it soluble. A high proportion of organic matter makes boron
available to plants in sufficient amounts, while the strong link between copper and organic
matter reduces copper's availability by further converting manganese into inaccessible
organic complexes. While leached calcareous soil often has low copper content, coarse-
textured soil typically has low boron content. Aeration is often inadequate in poorly drained
soil, which exacerbates iron, zinc, and manganese deficiency. Temperature and water
content are two other variables that affect a plant's capacity to absorb micronutrients. The
majority of micronutrients' availability may be impacted by the presence of other
substances. Excessive levels of phosphorus in the soil limit the availability of iron,
manganese, copper, and zinc and hinder plants' capacity to absorb them. Copper availability
may be decreased by high iron and zinc additions, while iron availability may be decreased
by high manganese, zinc, and copper additions. Zinc, iron, and copper additions may make
manganese less available. While high calcium availability enhances boron absorption by
plants, potassium application may exacerbate boron deficit in soil. Inadequate soil drainage
coupled with chilly temperatures exacerbates zinc and iron deficiency. When soil is dry,
56
there is a greater likelihood of boron deficit and a more severe lack of molybdenum due to
less mineralisation. It takes two steps for plants to absorb nutrients. The ions diffuse and
mass flow into the portions of the root that are easily accessible to the external solution. The
term free space refers to this area outside the xylem, the part of the plant through which the
materials pass. Ion movement into free space is seen as passive. The active transport of ions
from the free space across a membrane into the inner cells and into the xylem is the second
stage of nutrient intake. Active transport is a metabolic activity since it suggests that the
plant is using up its energy. Table displays how plants absorb nutrients in a certain ionic
form.

Table 3.3Ionic forms of micronutrients taken up by plants

Micronutrients play a pivotal function in a number of the metabolic and biochemical

processes that plants go through. In general, they are regarded as plant enzyme activators.
Small protein clusters called enzymes provide a particular and essential purpose for plants.
Since each enzyme needs a certain vitamin to function, the micronutrient is also known as a
catalyst. Therefore, all of the micronutrients found in plants—iron, manganese, zinc, copper,
boron, and molybdenum—activate certain enzymes. Growing research indicates that a
plant's ability to withstand environmental stressors is significantly influenced by its mineral
and nutritional status. By triggering certain physiological, biochemical, and metabolic
processes inside the plant body, micronutrients assist macronutrients in mitigating the
effects of drought.

3.2 Study Area

This geographical research analyses soil qualities in the Yavatmal area of Maharashtra,
India, with a particular emphasis on agricultural planning. The research seeks to thoroughly
examine essential soil properties can have a major impact on the area's agricultural fields'
57
suitability and [Link] research aims to provide significant insights for efficient
agricultural planning and management in Yavatmal area by analysing aspects such as soil
composition, texture, fertility, and other pertinent criteria. The primary objective is to
facilitate sustainable and informed decision-making processes, assuring appropriate land use
practices that correspond with the region's particular soil characteristics and improve
agricultural production.

 Explanation of the research field

In Maharashtra state, Yavatmal is located in the eastern (Vidharbha) region, which is

between latitudes 19026 and 20042 N and longitudes 77018 and 79098 E. With a population
of 20,77,144 (2.63% of the state), The Yavatmal district is located in Maharashtra's Western
Vidarbha area. The principal crops grown in this district, and therefore in the Digras area,
include cotton, soybeans, jawari, bajari, toor, etc. Soil provides essential nutrients needed
for plants to flourish properly. As a result, soil quality affects crop output and quality.
Fertilisers provide the soil a variety of nutrients. Large-scale use of different chemical
fertilisers increases crop productivity, but degrades soil quality in the process.

58
 Fig 3.2: Area of Study: Yavatmal

 Demography:

The population density of the district was 204 people per square kilometre (530/sq mi).
Between 2001 and 2011, the population grew by 12.9%. Yavatmal has an 80.7% literacy
rate and a sex ratio of 947 females per 1000 males. The proportion of individuals residing in
urban areas was 21.58%. Yavatmal has 116,551 people living there as of the 2011 Indian
Census, with 58,549 men and 58,002 women. There were 11,360 people in the age range of
0 to 6. With 85.1% of males and 80.9% of females literate, Yavatmal's total population was
96,726 literate, accounting for 82.9% of the total. Yavatmal's population aged 7 and over
had an effective literacy rate of 91.9%; the rate for men was 94.8%, while the rate for
women was 89.1%. There were 6,543 Scheduled Tribes and 19,816 Scheduled Castes,
respectively. In 2011, Yavatmal had 26,173 homes.

 Location:

[Link]
1s0x3bd3ef32cf8daf05:0xfd7613d3399a01cc!8m2!3d20.116952!4d78.1108279!16zL20vMDM4Y2s1?entry=ttu

59
 Fig 3.3: Location map of Yavatmal district, Maharashtra.

 Climate

A tropical climate may be found in this city. Aw is the categorization that the Köppen-
Geiger climate system uses. There is an annual average temperature of 26.8 degrees Celsius
in Yavatmal. It rains 946 millimeters on average in this area.

Month Ja Fe Ma Ap Ma Ju Jul Au Sep Oc N De Year

n b r r y n g t ov c
Record 35 38. 41. 45. 46. 46. 39. 35. 38. 37 34 34 46.6
high °C .2 8 8 4 6 6 5 8 2 .4 .9
(°F) - - - - - - - - - - - - -
95 101 107 113 115 115 103 96. 100 99 94 93 115.9
.4 .8 .2 .7 .9 .9 .1 4 .8 .3 .8 .2
Mean daily 28 31. 36 40. 41. 36. 30. 29. 30. 31 29 28 32.8
maximum .6 5 1 4 6 5 1 8 .5 .8 .3
°C (°F) - - - - - - - - - - - - -91
83 88. 96. 104 106 97. 86. 84. 87. 88 85 82

60
 .5 7 8 .2 .5 9 9 4 4 .7 .6 .9
Mean daily 15 17. 21. 24. 26. 24. 22. 22 21. 19 17 14 20.7
minimum .3 3 2 8 8 7 5 8 .9 .6
°C (°F) - - - - - - - - - - - - -69.3
59 63. 70. 76. 80. 76. 72. 71. 71. 67 62 58
.5 1 2 6 2 5 5 6 2 .8 .6 .3
Record low 6. 7.2 9.8 13. 18. 16. 15. 16 13. 13 8. 6. 6.2
°C (°F) 4 5 2 1 2 2 6 2
- -45 - - - -61 - - - - - - -43.2
43 49. 56. 64. 59. 60. 55. 55 47 43
.5 6 3 8 4 8 8 .4 .5 .2
Average 19 8.6 12. 7.9 18. 195 280 266 146 61 14 9. 1,040
rainfall .2 8 6 .1 .8 .4 .3 .6 3 .50
mm - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(inches) 0. 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.7 7.6 11. 10. 5.7 2. 0. 0. 40.96
76 4 1 3 8 02 5 6 41 57 37
Average 1. 1.1 1.2 0.9 1.5 8.9 13. 11. 8 3. 0. 0. 53
rainy days 2 6 6 4 9 7

Average re 37 29 22 19 22 47 70 75 67 53 43 39 44
lative
humidity (
%) (at
17:30 IST)
Source: India Meteorological Department

The climatic data for the specified location reveals notable patterns in temperature,
precipitation, and humidity throughout the year. A record high of 46.6°C was recorded in
May, and the area receives high temperatures from April to [Link] extreme
temperatures, particularly in May and June, underscore the intensity of the summer heat.
The mean daily maximum temperatures from April to July consistently remain above 40°C,
contributing to the overall arid conditions. The monsoon season, marked by substantial
rainfall from June to September, brings relief, with the highest recorded monthly rainfall of
280 mm in July. Despite the arid climate, the region encounters occasional rainfall,
significantly impacting the average annual rainfall of 1,040.50 mm. The relatively low
61
average rainy days (53) indicate concentrated precipitation during the monsoon period.
Additionally, the average relative humidity values demonstrate a distinct increase during the
monsoon season, peaking at 75% in August. This climatic profile, characterized by high
temperatures, concentrated rainfall, and fluctuations in humidity, holds critical implications
for agricultural planning, water resource management, and overall environmental
adaptability in the specified district.

 Sampling

Every month, soil samples were taken from each of the ten sampling [Link] gathered
soil samples were meticulously prepared, distinctly labelled, and sent to the laboratory for
further investigation. The physical parameters such as soil texture, soil colour, lime status,
soil temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and the natural nutrient (SOC) were
determined. The data obtained in months were segregated according to relevant seasons like
monsoon, post monsoon and pre monsoon.

 Physical parameters

Composition of the soil The feel method was used to determine the texture of the soil. The
feel method is a rudimentary technique for widely assessing various soil texture
classifications, examples include clay loam, silty loam, sandy loam, and loamy sand.

3.3 Geographical Features

 Topography:
Yavatmal District in Maharashtra exhibits diverse topographical features that
significantly influence soil properties and agricultural planning. The district
encompasses various landforms, including plains, plateaus, and hills. The topographic
relief plays a crucial role in water drainage patterns, affecting soil erosion and nutrient
distribution.
 Soil Composition:
The district's soil composition is inherently linked to its geological features. Yavatmal is
known for a variety of soil types, ranging from alluvial soils in low-lying areas to black
cotton soils in elevated regions. The heterogeneous nature of soil composition requires a
meticulous study to understand the unique characteristics of each soil type.
 Drainage System:

62
 The district's drainage system, shaped by its terrain, is crucial for soil moisture levels
and fertility. The efficacy of natural drainage, together with the existence of rivers and
aquatic bodies, impacts the whole water table and informs irrigation methodologies and
water management in agriculture.

 Vegetation and Land Use:

The existing vegetation cover and land use practices in Yavatmal District contribute
significantly to the overall soil health. Deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization
impact soil structure and nutrient levels. Understanding the interplay between land use
patterns and soil properties is crucial for sustainable agricultural planning.
 Climatic Factors:
The district's climatic conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and humidity,
form an integral part of the geographical features. These factors directly influence soil
moisture, microbial activity, and the overall agroecosystem. A comprehensive
geographical study must consider climatic variations to develop robust agricultural
plans.
 Water Resources:

The quantity and calibre of water supplies,including rivers, reservoirs, and groundwater,
are paramount for successful agriculture. The geographical distribution of water sources
and their proximity to agricultural areas determine irrigation possibilities and impact
crop selection and yield.

 Erosion and Conservation:

Geographical features such as slopes and the degree of land slope contribute to soil
erosion challenges. Understanding erosion-prone areas and implementing conservation
measures, such as contour plowing and terracing, is essential for maintaining soil
fertility and preventing degradation.
 Biotic Influences:
The presence of flora and fauna in the region can influence soil properties through
organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling, and microbial activity. The geographical
study should consider these biotic factors to comprehend the broader ecosystem
dynamics and their implications for agriculture.

63
3.4 Data collection
Data collection in soil studies involves gathering samples directly from the field to assess
various soil properties. In this case, where we have collected samples from farms in
Maharashtra for agricultural planning, the process likely includes several steps: composite
the separate samples from every place to produce analysis-ready representative
[Link] any debris or extraneous materials from the samples, and air-dry them to
ensure uniformity and prevent contamination. Interpret the results obtained from soil
analyses to understand the soil's suitability for agriculture and identify any potential
constraints or deficiencies. Compare the data collected from different locations within the
selected districts to determine how soil characteristics vary geographically. Assess vital soil
properties in a lab setting, such as texture, pH, organic matter content, nutrient
concentrations (potassium, phosphorus, nitrogen, etc.), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and
soil moisture content. These investigations provide significant information regarding the
soil's fertility, composition, and general condition.

3.5 Soil processing and storage

The Following the disintegration of the large clumps of soil, samples were collected from
the designated regions and laid out on a clean sheet of paper to dry in the shade. The soil
was then pulverised with a wooden hammer to reduce the clods to the tiniest feasible
particles on a hard surface covered with a polythene sheet. A 2 millimetre sieve was used to
filter the soil particles. For laboratory examination, the material that passed through the filter
was gathered and labelled appropriately before being kept in polythene bags. The illustration
of soil sample collection, processing and storage is shown below

1. Chana

Channa, commonly known as chickpeas or gram in English, is a vital crop cultivated in

Maharashtra and across various regions of India. Babhulgaon, being part of Maharashtra's
agricultural landscape, likely sees cultivation of this leguminous crop due to its capacity to
adjust to the soil and climate in the area. Channa holds significant importance as a source of
nutrition, income, and soil fertility enhancement in the region. In Babhulgaon, channa
farming often forms part of varied cropping systems, enhancing crop rotation methods that
sustain soil health and fertility. The crop's capacity to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen via
symbiotic associations with certain soil bacteria renders it especially beneficial for
augmenting soil nitrogen content, therefore increasing the yield of following harvests.

64
Chickpeas are versatile in culinary applications, serving as a staple ingredient in various
traditional dishes such as curries, snacks, and salads. Beyond its nutritional value for human
consumption, channa also serves as an essential source of feed for livestock, contributing to
the region's livestock rearing practices. Channa agriculture contributes to the agricultural
economy and lives of Babhulgaon by giving farmers a source of income. The crop's demand
in domestic and international markets further underscores its economic significance, offering
opportunities for trade and export. In summary, channa cultivation in Babhulgaon
exemplifies the multifaceted role of leguminous crops in sustainable agriculture,
encompassing food security, soil fertility management, income generation, and economic
development within the region.

65
 Fig 3.4 Chana Farm

2. Ner, crop Gahu

Gahu, known as wheat in English, is a staple crop widely cultivated in Maharashtra and
various parts of India. Its significance in agriculture and food security cannot be overstated.
Gahu holds a central position in the state's agricultural landscape, serving as a essential
source of sustenance and income for millions of farmers and [Link] cereal crop
belongs to the grass family and thrives in diverse agro-climatic conditions, making it
66
adaptable to different regions within Maharashtra. Gahu cultivation typically occurs during
the winter season, benefiting from the state's temperate climate. The crop's versatility
extends beyond its role as a dietary staple, as it also contributes to soil health through its root
system, enriching the organic matter-rich soil. Furthermore, wheat is an essential rotating
crop that works in tandem with other crops in crop rotation systems help reduce the burden
of diseases and pests and increase soil [Link] is economically essential to the state's
agricultural industry, generating income for farmers and supporting various downstream
industries involved in processing and marketing wheat-based products. Overall, Gahu
cultivation embodies the symbiotic relationship between agriculture, food security, and
economic sustainability in Maharashtra, underlining its enduring importance in the region's
agricultural fabric.

Fig 3.5 Wheat Farm

3. Babhulgaon , crop bhaimung,

Bhaimung, also known as Sorghum or Jowar in English, is a significant crop cultivated in

regions like Babhulgaon, Maharashtra, and throughout India. Babhulgaon, located in the
state's agricultural belt, often sees extensive cultivation of this hardy cereal crop due to its
adaptability to semi-arid climates. An essential crop for human consumption and animal
feed, bhaimung plays a vital role in the regional agricultural [Link] resilience to
67
drought and heat stress makes it particularly well-suited to Babhulgaon's environment,
where water scarcity and erratic rainfall patterns are common challenges. Farmers in
Babhulgaon typically sow Bhaimung during the monsoon season, taking advantage of the
rains to support initial growth stages. Once established, Bhaimung requires minimal water
inputs, making it a reliable choice for farmers facing water constraints. Because of its deep
root system, which enhances soil fertility and structure, Bhaimung is important for crop
rotation and soil conservation in addition to its use as a food [Link], Bhaimung's
versatility extends to various culinary uses, from traditional rotis and porridges to modern
value-added products like gluten-free flour and snacks. In Babhulgaon and similar regions,
Bhaimung cultivation exemplifies the resilience of traditional crops in meeting the food and
economic needs of rural communities while contributing to sustainable agricultural practices
in challenging agro-climatic conditions.

Fig 3.6 Wheat Farm

4. Bhabhulgaon, crop cotton

In Babhulgaon, Maharashtra, cotton holds a prominent position as a key crop contributing

significantly to the local agricultural economy. Cotton cultivation in this region benefits
from favorable agro-climatic conditions, including sufficient sunlight, moderate
temperatures, and well-drained soils, which are conducive to the growth of this cash crop.
Farmers in Babhulgaon typically sow cotton during the summer months, taking advantage of

68
the warm weather and adequate moisture to support germination and early growth stages.
Cotton cultivation is essential to Babhulgaon's farmers' way of life as it generates a
significant amount of revenue and jobs. The crop's demand in domestic and international
textile markets offers lucrative opportunities for farmers, encouraging widespread
cultivation. Additionally, cotton cultivation often involves extensive labor, providing
employment opportunities for rural communities during various stages of the crop's
production cycle, from sowing to harvesting. Beyond its economic significance, cotton
contributes to soil health and fertility in Babhulgaon. The crop's deep root system
contributes to the overall quality of the soil by strengthening soil aeration, water infiltration,
and structure. Additionally, leftover cotton residue after harvest may be added back to the
soil as organic matter, enriching soil fertility and promoting sustainable agricultural
practices. Cotton cultivation has specific problems, notably in pest and disease control.
Farmers in Babhulgaon often use integrated pest management (IPM) techniques to reduce
the threats posed by pests like bollworms and diseases such as cotton leaf curl virus, hence
promoting sustainable production methods and minimising environmental repercussions.
Cotton farming in Babhulgaon is essential to the region's agricultural framework, providing
economic prospects for farmers, enhancing soil fertility, and sustaining local lives. By
adopting appropriate cultivation practices and pest management strategies, farmers can
sustainably harness the potential of cotton cultivation to enhance agricultural productivity
and rural prosperity in Babhulgaon, Maharashtra.

69
 Fig 3.7 Crop cotton Farm

Kalamb, crop soyabean

In Kalamb, Maharashtra, soybean cultivation holds significant importance as a major crop

contributing to the region's agricultural prosperity. Kalamb's favorable agro-climatic
conditions, characterized by sufficient rainfall and well-drained soils, provide an ideal
environment for soybean cultivation. Farmers typically sow soybeans during the monsoon
season, leveraging the rainfall to support germination and early growth [Link]
cultivation is essential to Kalamb farmers' lives since it provides a reliable source of income
and jobs. The crop's versatility and demand in domestic and international markets make it an
attractive option for farmers seeking profitable agricultural ventures. With its symbiotic
relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, soybeans fix atmospheric nitrogen, disrupting
insect cycles and improving soil fertility. They are a key rotation [Link] an economic
perspective, soybean agriculture has several potential for value enhancement and market
diversification. Soybeans have dual purposes: they are used for human consumption in
products like cooking oil, tofu, and soy milk, as well as for animal feed, especially in the
poultry and dairy sectors. Additionally, soybean residues, such as soybean meal and soybean
hulls, have applications in animal feed formulations and industrial processes, contributing to
70
the overall economic viability of soybean cultivation in Kalamb. However, soybean
cultivation in Kalamb is not without challenges. Farmers often face issues related to pest and
disease management, including pests like soybean pod borer and diseases such as soybean
rust. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices, coupled with appropriate crop rotation
and agronomic techniques, are essential for mitigating these challenges and ensuring
sustainable soybean production in the region. In summary, soybean cultivation in Kalamb
plays a vital role in the region's agricultural landscape, offering economic opportunities for
farmers, enhancing soil fertility, and contributing to food security and livestock feed
availability. By adopting innovative farming practices and leveraging market opportunities,
farmers can sustainably harness the potential of soybean cultivation to drive rural prosperity
and agricultural development in Kalamb, Maharashtra.

Fig 3.8 Crop cotton Farm

3.6 Agriculture Practices in Yavatmal

Agriculture in Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, is influenced by the region's agro-climatic
conditions, soil types, and water availability. Here's an overview of agricultural practices in
Yavatmal:In Yavatmal, Maharashtra, agricultural practices are diverse and tailored to the
71
region's agro-climatic conditions, soil types, and cropping patterns. Yavatmal, an
agriculturally affluent area, uses several traditional and contemporary farming methods to
maximise crop production and provide food security for its inhabitants. A common
agricultural approach in Yavatmal is rainfed farming, in which crops are grown only using
rainwater for irrigation. Due to the district's semi-arid environment, water conservation
methods including watershed management, drip irrigation, and rainwater collecting are
widely used to alleviate water shortages and promote sustainable agricultural production.
Yavatmal is renowned for its cotton cultivation, with farmers extensively cultivating cotton
varieties suited to the local climate. In addition to cotton, soybeans, lentils, millets, and
oilseeds are among the other significant crops farmed in the [Link] rotation and
intercropping are common practices employed by farmers to enhance soil fertility, manage
illnesses and pests, and maximise the effectiveness of land usageModern agricultural
technology including precision farming, high-yielding crop types, and mechanisation are
also being used more often, which is improving livelihoods and production. However, the
agricultural sector in Yavatmal also faces challenges such as soil degradation, water
scarcity, pest infestations, and market fluctuations. Sustainable agricultural practices,
supported by government initiatives, research, and extension services, are crucial for
addressing these challenges and promoting agricultural resilience and prosperity in
Yavatmal. Overall, agriculture in Yavatmal is a dynamic and evolving sector, where
traditional knowledge intersects with modern innovations to sustainably meet the food and
economic needs of its communities while preserving the region's natural [Link]
Yavatmal, Maharashtra, agriculture practices are shaped by the region's agro-climatic
conditions, which are characterized by semi-arid to arid climates with erratic rainfall
patterns. Despite these challenges, agriculture remains a vital component of the local
economy, with a focus on diverse cropping systems and innovative farming practices.
Yavatmal is known for its cultivation of cotton, soybeans, pulses, and cereals like jowar and
wheat. Farmers in Yavatmal use several sustainable agriculture methods to optimise yields
and reduce environmental hazards. Conservation agricultural practices, like limited tillage
and mulching, preserve soil moisture and mitigate soil erosion amid unpredictable rains.
Moreover, crop diversification and intercropping are prevalent tactics used by farmers to
mitigate risks and bolster resistance against unfavourable weather circumstances.
Furthermore, the adoption of improved crop varieties, along with integrated pest
management (IPM) practices, aids in pest and disease control, reducing reliance on chemical
inputs while maintaining crop health. Water management is another critical aspect of
72
agriculture in Yavatmal, with farmers increasingly using rainwater collection and drip
irrigation strategies to reduce the consequences of water shortage and maximise water usage
[Link], initiatives promoting organic farming and the use of bio-fertilizers
contribute to sustainable agriculture practices, enhancing soil health and reducing
environmental impacts. Despite the challenges posed by climate variability and resource
constraints, the agriculture practices in Yavatmal reflect the resilience and adaptability of
farmers, who continuously innovate and Adopt sustainable practices to guarantee regional
livelihood sustainability and food security.

 Crop Cultivation:

Yavatmal is predominantly an agrarian district, with farmers cultivating a variety of crops.

Major crops include cotton, soybeans, turmeric, sorghum, and pulses. Crop selection is often
influenced by market demand, soil type, and water availability.

 Irrigation Methods:

Due to Yavatmal's semi-arid environment, irrigation is essential for agriculture.

Agriculturists use several irrigation systems, including conventional methods such as wells
and tanks, alongside contemporary approaches like drip and spray irrigation. Effective water
management is crucial for optimising agricultural output.

 Crop Rotation and Intercropping:

To maintain soil fertility and prevent pest infestations, farmers in Yavatmal practice crop
rotation and intercropping. This helps in utilizing nutrients effectively, reduces the risk
of soil-borne diseases, and enhances overall agricultural sustainability.
 Use of Technology:
Modern agricultural practices, including the use of technology and machinery, have
become increasingly prevalent in Yavatmal. Farmers adopt improved seed varieties,
mechanized farming equipment, and agrochemicals to enhance productivity and
efficiency.
 Organic Farming:

In reaction to the increasing demand for organic products, several farmers in Yavatmal have
adopted organic agricultural methods. This involves avoiding synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, promoting sustainable farming methods, and catering to consumers seeking
chemical-free agricultural products.

73
 Livestock Farming:
Livestock farming, including dairy and poultry farming, is integrated into the
agricultural landscape of Yavatmal. Livestock provides an additional source of income
for farmers and contributes to the overall rural economy.
 Government Initiatives:

Numerous governmental programs and efforts are executed to assist farmers in Yavatmal.
This include subsidies for seeds, fertilisers, and irrigation apparatus, in addition to financial
aid programs designed to enhance agricultural infrastructure and methodologies.

 Challenges:
Yavatmal faces challenges such as water scarcity, unpredictable weather patterns, and
occasional pest outbreaks. Farmers grapple with these challenges and seek innovative
solutions, often with the support of agricultural extension services and research
institutions.
 Cooperative Farming:

Cooperative farming models are observed in Yavatmal, where farmers come together to
collectively manage and share resources. This strategy aids in tackling prevalent difficulties,
using shared infrastructure, and enhancing the socio-economic status of the agricultural
community.

3.7 Collection and preparation of initial soil sample

Agriculture is deeply rooted in the economy of Yavatmal district in Maharashtra, with
the soil playing a pivotal role in sustaining the livelihoods of farmers. Soil characteristics
such as texture, structure, nutrient composition, and moisture retention capacity are vital
in determining the productivity of agricultural land. Over time, extensive agricultural
practices have altered the natural balance of nutrients in the soil, leading to the depletion
of essential elements required for crop growth. Therefore, an in-depth geographical
study of soil properties in Yavatmal is crucial for better agricultural planning and
sustainable land use. This case study focuses on analyzing soil properties in Yavatmal
district, particularly evaluating physical and chemical parameters to aid in creating a soil
fertility map. This map can be utilized for precise agricultural planning, such as
determining fertilizer requirements, selecting appropriate crop types, and improving
overall soil management practices.

74
In order to assess the chemical and biological properties of the experimental soil, soil
samples were taken from randomly chosen spots across the experimental area prior to
seeding the surface (0–15 cm depth). A composite sample was formed after meticulously
merging the collected samples. Subsequent to outside air-drying, the material was brought
inside the laboratory and subjected to a 2 mm sieve. A 0.5 mm sieve was used to filter
organic carbon. The chemical parameters of the representative sample were analysed using
established procedures. The experimental soil's initial chemical and biological
characteristics were shown in Table 3.2.

A. Sample Size Collection and Lab Testing: Step-by-Step Procedure

Sample Collection

To conduct an accurate geographical study of soil properties for agricultural planning, it is

essential to gather representative soil samples from various agricultural lands across the
Yavatmal district. This case study aims to assess soil characteristics across different land use
patterns, soil types, and climatic variations, providing valuable insights for sustainable
agriculture.

Procedure:

1. Area Selection: The first phase of the sample collecting procedure is selecting specific
geographical sites within the Yavatmal district. This decision is predicated on a
confluence of elements, including soil types, land use patterns, and crop varieties. The
district has a vast array of soil types because to its varied terrain and climatic
circumstances, necessitating the inclusion of both irrigated and non-irrigated agricultural
regions. The research seeks to provide a thorough understanding of soil health and its
influence on agricultural output by including various land uses under different water
availability situations.
2. Sample Size: For the study, 150 soil samples in total were collected, guaranteeing
statistical validity. This comprises 75 samples from irrigated agricultural fields and 75
samples from non-irrigated agricultural lands. The irrigated samples indicate areas with
more reliable water supply, where crops are cultivated under regulated circumstances.
Conversely, the non-irrigated samples are from regions reliant on natural precipitation,
signifying soils subjected to more erratic environmental stress. This comparative

75
 comparison of irrigated vs non-irrigated farms is essential for comprehending the impact
of water management on soil health.
3. Sampling Seasons: Soil properties can fluctuate significantly with changing climatic
conditions. Therefore, soil samples are collected during three distinct seasons—winter,
summer, and monsoon. The seasonal variation in temperature, rainfall, and evaporation
rates influences nutrient availability, soil moisture content, and microbial activity.
Winter soil samples provide insights into nutrient retention after harvests, summer
samples reflect soil stress under high heat and low moisture, and monsoon samples
reveal the effects of waterlogging or soil rejuvenation through rainfall. By sampling in
these seasons, the study ensures a dynamic understanding of how soil properties respond
to varying weather conditions.
4. Sampling Depth: The soil samples are collected from the top layer (0-15 cm) of the soil
profile using soil augers or spades. This top layer is crucial for agricultural productivity
as it directly interacts with plant roots. It is also the most sensitive to changes in
moisture, nutrients, and organic matter due to agricultural activities, such as tilling and
fertilization. The topsoil depth is selected because it holds the maximum concentration
of roots, and its properties play a vital role in nutrient absorption by plants.
5. Composite Sampling: To ensure accuracy and reduce sampling bias, a composite
sampling technique is employed. From each selected site, five subsamples are collected
randomly and mixed thoroughly to form a composite sample. This method helps to
average out any localized variations in soil properties within a site and provides a more
reliable representation of the area. The composite samples increase the robustness of the
data and eliminate discrepancies that may arise from natural soil heterogeneity.
6. Labeling and Storage: Proper labeling and storage are crucial to maintaining the
integrity of the soil samples. Each sample is carefully labeled with relevant information,
including the specific site location, season of collection, and land type (irrigated or non-
irrigated). This labeling ensures traceability and allows for easy reference during data
analysis. After labeling, the samples are stored in air-tight containers to prevent
contamination or moisture loss. These containers are then transported to the laboratory
for detailed analysis, where various soil properties such as pH, nutrient content, organic
matter, and texture are examined.

This thorough sampling procedure ensures that the soil data collected from Yavatmal district
will provide an accurate and comprehensive assessment of soil properties across different
76
agricultural zones. By incorporating a wide range of variables such as land type, seasonality,
and soil depth, this study will offer crucial insights for optimizing agricultural practices and
enhancing soil health in the region.

Laboratory Testing of Soil Samples

The primary objective of laboratory testing is to determine the physical and chemical
characteristics of the soil samples that were collected from the Yavatmal [Link]
characteristics are essential for comprehending soil fertility, water retention, and crop
appropriateness.

Physical Parameters:

1. Soil Texture Analysis: Soil texture is a crucial attribute that influences soil
behaviour, particularly its capacity to retain nutrients and moisture. It is often
divided into three groups based on the quantities of clay, silt, and [Link]
hydrometer technique is often used to ascertain soil texture. The soil sample is
suspended in water using a chemical dispersion that inhibits particle aggregation.
The soil particles then settle at varying speeds according to their size, with sand
settling first, followed by silt, and ultimately clay. The relative proportions of these
particles are computed to classify the soil. The soil's texture affects its aeration,
drainage, and capacity to sustain plant development, making it a vital factor in
agricultural planning.
2. Bulk Density: Bulk density quantifies the quantity of soil inside a certain volume,
often represented in megagrammes per cubic meter (Mg m ⁻³). The core technique is
used, which entails taking a certain amount of undisturbed soil and then drying it to
eliminate moisture. The dry mass is then divided by the volume to get the bulk
density. A reduced bulk density signifies superior soil structure, enhancing root
penetration and augmenting water and nutrient accessibility. Conversely, elevated
bulk density may result in soil compaction, therefore impeding root development and
water penetration, which adversely affects crop yields. Comprehending bulk density
is essential for farmers to assess soil compaction and adopt methods like tilling or
incorporating organic matter to improve soil structure.
3. Particle Density: Particle density denotes the density of the solid particles
constituting the soil, differentiating it from bulk density, which encompasses the
77
 volume of interstitial holes among particles. The particle density is determined with
the pycnometer technique. This technique involves placing a measured volume of
soil particles in a pycnometer and adding a liquid, usually water, to occupy the voids.
The mass variation before and after the addition of the liquid is used to determine the
density of the soil particles. Particle density is fairly stable throughout most soils,
averaging around 2.65 Mg m⁻³. Fluctuations in particle density may signify
variations in mineral composition, with elevated values indicating the presence of
denser minerals like iron oxides.
4. Porosity: Porosity quantifies the empty spaces among soil particles and is
determined by the connection between bulk density and particle density. It denotes
the proportion of the total soil volume filled by pores capable of retaining air or
water. Porosity is a crucial determinant of the soil's ability for water retention and
drainage properties. It is computed via the formula:

Soils with higher porosity have greater capacity to store water, which is beneficial for crops
in regions with irregular rainfall. On the other hand, soils with low porosity may lead to
waterlogging and reduced oxygen availability to plant roots, negatively affecting plant
growth. In the context of Yavatmal district, understanding the porosity of the soil helps
farmers optimize irrigation strategies and select crops that can thrive under specific soil
conditions.

Chemical Parameters:

The chemical makeup of soil is essential in assessing its agricultural viability.

Comprehending the chemical features of soil facilitates efficient agricultural planning,
particularly in areas such as Yavatmal District in Maharashtra, noted for its mostly agrarian
economy. This geographical research assessed the chemical parameters of pH, Cation
exchange capacity (CEC), organic carbon content, electrical conductivity (EC), and macro
and micronutrient availability .An analysis of these qualities yields a greater understanding
of soil fertility and its capacity to support diverse crops, therefore assisting farmers and
policymakers in making educated choices.

78
1. pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC)

pH of Soil: A crucial chemical property of soil, pH influences a number of soil functions,

including plant growth, microbial activity, and nutrient availability. Crop output is
significantly impacted by the pH value, which measures how acidic or alkaline the soil [Link]
is often assessed using a pH meter.

 Optimal pH for Agriculture: Soils with a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5 are often deemed
appropriate for the majority of crops, since this range facilitates optimum nutrient
absorption by plants. In Yavatmal District, characterised by prevalent dryland
agriculture, soil pH exhibits variability, impacting crop output. Soils with high
acidity (pH below 6.0) may need lime application to mitigate acidity, while alkaline
soils (pH over 8.0) may prevent micronutrients like iron and zinc and nutrients like
phosphorus from being available.
 Electrical Conductivity (EC): Electrical conductivity (EC) quantifies the capacity
of soil to transmit electrical current, which correlates directly with the quantity of
soluble salts. Soil salinity is a crucial factor that influences water absorption by
plants. Electrical conductivity is assessed via a conductivity meter.
 Soil Salinity and Agriculture: High soil salinity, indicated by high EC values, can
lead to reduced water availability for plants and negatively impact crop growth. In
regions like Yavatmal, where irrigation practices may be limited or irregular,
monitoring EC is essential to prevent soil degradation caused by excessive salt
accumulation. Low EC values generally indicate that the soil is non-saline, which is
conducive to healthy crop growth.

2. Organic Carbon Content

Organic Carbon: A key component of soil fertility and health, organic carbon measures the
amount of organic matter present in the soil. The organic carbon content is often assessed
with the Walkley-Black technique. This method uses sulphuric acid and potassium
dichromate to oxidise soil organic materials, followed by titration to determine the carbon
content.

Role in Agriculture: In addition to strengthening the physical structure of the soil, which
increases its ability to retain moisture and minerals, organic matter is the main source of
nutrients for crops .An increased organic carbon level often signifies enhanced soil health,
79
hence facilitating sustainable agriculture operations. In Yavatmal District, where organic
agricultural techniques are being increasingly advocated, sustaining sufficient organic
carbon levels is crucial for enduring soil production.

3. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): CEC is a measure of the soil's ability to hold and
exchange cations, which are positively charged ions such as sodium (Na ⁺), potassium (K ⁺),
magnesium (Mg²⁺), and calcium (Ca²⁺). A key factor in determining soil fertility is Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC), which influences the soil's capacity to hold onto essential
nutrients and make them available to plants. A neutral ammonium solution is used to
displace exchangeable cations, and the concentration of cations in the solution is then
measured to calculate the cation exchange capacity (CEC).

Importance in Agriculture: Because they can hold onto more nutrients, which are then
gradually released to plants as required, soils with higher CEC values are often more
productive. On the other hand, since nutrients are readily leached out of soils with low CEC
levels, fertilisation may need to occur more often. In Yavatmal District, where crops like
cotton, soybean, and pulses are grown, understanding the soil’s CEC helps in determining
the need for fertilizers and amendments to improve crop yield.

4. Micronutrient Analysis

Micronutrient Content: Micronutrients are vital components needed by plants in little

amounts, although they are crucial for plant health and production. The four main
micronutrients that are analysed in soils are zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and
iron (Fe). Typically, a chelating agent such as diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) is
used to extract these metals from the soil, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS)
is used to quantify the results.

Micronutrient Deficiency: Micronutrient deficiencies can severely limit crop growth, even
when macronutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are in adequate supply. For
example, iron and zinc deficiencies are common in calcareous soils, which are prevalent in
certain parts of Maharashtra, including Yavatmal District. Addressing these deficiencies
through soil amendments or foliar sprays can enhance crop productivity and quality.

5. Macro-Nutrient Analysis
80
Nitrogen (N): The Kjeldahl method is often used to quantify nitrogen, an element that is
crucial for plant growth. This method involves employing sulphuric acid to decompose soil
samples, then distilling and titrating the materials to determine the amount of nitrogen
present.

Role in Crop Production: Nitrogen is essential for the synthesis of proteins and chlorophyll
in plants, making it a critical nutrient for crops. Soils with low nitrogen content may require
nitrogenous fertilizers to support optimal crop growth.

Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus is another critical macronutrient, often measured using the
Olsen method. This method extracts available phosphorus using a sodium bicarbonate
solution, which is then analyzed colorimetrically.

 Importance in Agriculture: Phosphorus is crucial for energy transfer and root

development in plants. Soils deficient in phosphorus can restrict crop growth and
production. The pH, organic matter, and crop type of the soil may all affect the
amount of phosphorus present in the soils of Yavatmal.
 Potassium (K): Flame photometry, which uses ammonium acetate to quantify the
quantity of potassium taken from the soil, is used to test potassium.
 Significance for Crops: Potassium is essential for controlling photosynthesis,
disease resistance, and the absorption of water and nutrients by plants. In regions like
Yavatmal, where dryland farming is prevalent, maintaining adequate potassium
levels is critical for crops to withstand drought and stress conditions.

Equipment and Procedure

1. Equipment Used for Soil Analysis
Soil analysis for agricultural planning involves a variety of equipment designed to test
different soil properties, which are essential for determining the suitability of the soil for
crop production. Below is a detailed explanation of the equipment used for soil analysis:
 Soil Augers/Spades: In order to get soil samples from different areas of the field,
these instruments are necessary .A soil auger is used to penetrate the soil and extract
a core sample from depths that can range from the surface layer to deeper subsoil
levels. The samples collected are representative of the soil conditions and are
necessary for accurate laboratory analysis.

81
 Hydrometer: Finding the relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample is
the first step in analysing soil texture using a hydrometer. Understanding the soil's
nutrient-holding capacity, drainage characteristics, and water retention is essential.
 pH Meter: Soil samples are tested for acidity or alkalinity using a pH meter. Certain
crops grow best in certain pH ranges, and soil pH influences microbial activity and
nutrient availability. Therefore, pH measurement is crucial for figuring out if soil is
suitable for different crops.
 Conductivity Meter: With the use of a conductivity meter, the electrical
conductivity (EC) of the soil is determined, providing a measure of its salinity .High
salinity levels can negatively affect plant growth, so this measurement helps in
determining whether any soil amendments, such as leaching or gypsum, are needed.
 Walkley-Black Apparatus: This apparatus is employed for organic carbon content
analysis. Soil fertility is measured by organic carbon, which shows how much
decomposed organic matter is in the soil and helps make nutrients available.
 Kjeldahl Apparatus: Nitrogen analysis is done using the Kjeldahl device. A crucial
ingredient for plant development is nitrogen, and the Kjeldahl technique gives an
accurate indication of the soil's organic and inorganic nitrogen concentration.
 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS): Micronutrient concentrations
including iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) may be measured
using [Link] micronutrients are essential for plant health and development, and
their deficiency can lead to poor crop yield and quality.

 Flame Photometer: This equipment is specifically used to analyze potassium

content in the soil. Potassium is an essential macronutrient that supports
photosynthesis, water regulation, and overall plant growth.
 Olsen Method Apparatus: For the analysis of phosphorus, the Olsen technique is
used. Plant energy transmission and root growth depend on [Link] method
extracts the available phosphorus in soil, which is a critical factor in assessing soil
fertility.
 Core Samplers: For the purpose of measuring bulk density and porosity,
undisturbed soil samples are gathered using core [Link] density is important
for understanding soil compaction and root penetration capacity.

 Pycnometer: A pycnometer is used for particle density analysis, which is a

measurement of the density of the soil’s solid particles. Particle density, together
82
 with bulk density, helps determine the porosity of the soil, which influences
water retention and drainage.

Lab Testing Process

This study aims to evaluate soil properties in Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, to inform
agricultural planning. Optimising crop yield, guaranteeing sustainable farming methods, and
enhancing soil management techniques all depend on an understanding of soil
[Link] document outlines a comprehensive lab testing process for analyzing various
soil properties, detailing the methods and procedures involved.

1. Soil Texture Analysis

to ascertain the soil sample's sand, silt, and clay contents.

1. Materials Needed for Soil Texture Analysis

To conduct a comprehensive soil texture analysis, the following materials are essential:

50g Soil Sample: To guarantee that the study captures the characteristics of the soil across
the region of interest, a representative soil sample is needed.

Dispersing Agent: Sodium hexameta phosphate serves as an effective dispersing agent. Its
role is to break down soil aggregates, allowing for better separation of individual particles.

Beaker: A clean beaker is necessary for mixing the soil sample with the dispersing agent
and water.

Graduated Cylinder: This instrument is used to measure the volume of the soil-water
mixture and to observe sedimentation over time.

Hydrometer: A hydrometer is employed to determine the density of the suspended

particles, This aids in measuring the amounts of clay, silt, and sand.

Stirring Rod: To fully combine the soil sample with the water and dispersion agent, a
stirring rod is needed.

Procedure for Soil Texture Analysis

The procedure for conducting the soil texture analysis is outlined in several key steps:

Sample Preparation: Begin by weighing a precise 50g sample of soil. This sample should
be representative of the area being studied to ensure that the results are applicable to broader

83
agricultural planning. Place the soil sample in a clean beaker, ensuring that no contamination
occurs.

Dispersing Agent Addition: Add an appropriate amount of the dispersing agent (sodium
hexametaphosphate) to the soil sample. The dispersing agent is crucial for breaking down
the soil aggregates, which allows for more effective separation of the individual soil
particles.

Mixing: Using a stirring rod, thoroughly mix the soil and dispersing agent. The goal is to
ensure complete dispersion of the soil particles, allowing them to be uniformly suspended in
the solution. This step is vital; as incomplete mixing can lead to inaccuracies in the analysis.

Hydrometer Measurement: Once the soil mixture is fully dispersed, pour it into a
graduated cylinder and fill it with distilled water to a specific volume. It is essential to allow
the mixture to settle for predetermined intervals—commonly 1 hour, 2 hours, and 4 hours.
During this settling period, the heavier sand particles will settle at the bottom first, Silt
comes next, then clay, which settles more slowly since it is smaller.

Recording Measurements: At each of the predetermined time intervals, carefully insert the
hydrometer into the graduated cylinder without disturbing the sediment layers. Record the
hydrometer readings, which will indicate the concentration of suspended particles at each
time interval. The sedimentation rates measured will provide the necessary data to
Determine how much sand, silt, and clay were present in the initial soil sample.

2. Bulk Density and Porosity

To assess the bulk density and porosity of the soil, which influence water retention and
aeration.
Materials Needed:
 Core Sampler: a specialised instrument made to remove soil samples from the earth
without disturbing them while maintaining the soil's organic structure.
 Oven: 105°C is a constant temperature that may be maintained in a laboratory-grade
oven to help dry soil samples.
 Weighing Scale: a precision scale to precisely weigh the soil samples both before
and after they have dried.

Procedure:

1. Core Sampling: Begin by selecting appropriate sites within Yavatmal district for
84
 sampling, ensuring they represent the various soil types and agricultural practices
in the region. Use the core sampler to extract undisturbed cylindrical soil
samples. It's essential to handle the samples carefully to maintain their integrity,
avoiding any disturbance that could alter their natural structure. Typically, core
samples are taken at a standard depth (e.g., 15 cm) to provide a consistent
measurement across different locations.
2. Drying the Sample: After collecting the soil samples, they must be dried to remove
any moisture content that could affect the bulk density calculations. After setting the
oven to 105°C, keep the samples there for a full day. This process ensures that all
water is evaporated, leading in a precise determination of the soil's dry mass.
3. Weighing: To stop the soil samples from absorbing moisture from the air, gently
take them out of the oven when the drying process is finished and let them cool in a
[Link] cooling, weigh the samples using the precision scale to determine
the dry mass. This measurement is crucial for calculating bulk density, as it
represents the weight of the soil without any water content.
4. Bulk Density Calculation: The following formula is used to determine the soil's
bulk density (ρ_b):

where Md is the dry mass of the soil (in grams) and Vs is the volume of the soil
sample (in cubic centimeters). The volume can typically be derived from the
dimensions of the core sampler.
5. Porosity Calculation: To determine the soil's ability to retain air and water, which is
essential for microbial activity and root development, porosity (P) is [Link]
formula for porosity is:

a.
In this equation, ρp is the particle density, commonly assumed to be 2.65 g/cm³ for
mineral soils. This value can vary depending on the soil composition, but using a
standard value allows for consistent comparisons across different samples.

3. pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) Measurement

85
To determine soil acidity/alkalinity and salinity, which affect plant growth.
Materials Needed
Materials Needed
To accurately measure pH and electrical conductivity, the following materials are
essential:
 Distilled water: Used to create a soil-water mixture, ensuring that no
contaminants affect the measurements.
 pH meter: A calibrated instrument for measuring the acidity or alkalinity of the
soil mixture.
 Conductivity meter: An instrument that measures the electrical conductivity of
the soil-water mixture, which indicates the level of salinity.
Procedure
1. Soil-Water Mixture Preparation: To begin the measurement process, a soil-
water mixture is prepared. Measure 10 grams of soil from the selected site in
Yavatmal district and place it in a clean container. Add 20 milliliters of distilled
water to the soil, following a 1:2 soil-to-water ratio. This ratio is critical as it
ensures that the soil particles are adequately suspended in the water, allowing for
accurate readings of pH and electrical conductivity.
2. pH Measurement: After mixing the soil and water thoroughly, the next step
involves letting the mixture settle for approximately 30 minutes. This allows the
larger soil particles to settle at the bottom while creating a supernatant layer of
liquid that is rich in dissolved ions. After the settling period, a calibrated pH
meter is used to measure the pH of the supernatant. It is crucial to ensure that the
pH meter is properly calibrated before taking readings to guarantee accuracy.
Record the pH value, as it will be pivotal in understanding the soil's acidity or
alkalinity.
3. EC Measurement: Once the pH has been recorded, the same soil-water mixture
can be used to measure electrical conductivity. Using a conductivity meter, insert
the probe into the supernatant and obtain the EC reading. This measurement
provides insights into the salinity of the soil, which can be a critical factor in
agricultural planning, especially in regions like Yavatmal, where soil salinity can
vary significantly due to factors such as irrigation practices and climatic
conditions.
Analysis and Importance
86
The data obtained from both the pH and EC measurements can be analyzed to draw
conclusions about the soil's suitability for various crops. For example, the majority of
crops like low to moderate salt levels and a pH that is slightly acidic to neutral (around
6.0 to 7.0).If the soil exhibits high acidity or salinity, soil amendments may be necessary
to improve its fertility and productivity. This information is crucial for local farmers and
agricultural planners in Yavatmal, as it aids in making informed decisions regarding crop
selection, fertilization practices, and soil management techniques.
4. Organic Carbon Determination
to assess the amount of organic carbon, a measure of the fertility of the soil.

Materials Needed:
 Soil Sample: 1 gram of the soil sample under investigation.
 Potassium Dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇): A strong oxidizing agent used for the
oxidation of organic matter.
 Concentrated Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄): This acid is necessary to create an acidic
environment for the reaction and to aid in the complete oxidation of organic
material.
 Titration Setup: This includes ferrous ammonium sulfate (Fe(NH₄)₂(SO₄)₂) as
the titrant, which will react with the excess potassium dichromate in the solution.
Procedure:
1. Sample Preparation: Begin by weighing 1 gram of the soil sample accurately. Place
this soil into a suitable reaction vessel, such as a conical flask. Next, add 10 mL of
potassium dichromate solution to the flask. This is an important phase because the
potassium dichromate oxidises the soil's organic carbon. After that, cautiously add 20
millilitres of sulphuric acid [Link] acid not only facilitates the oxidation
process but also ensures that the reaction occurs under acidic conditions, which are
essential for complete oxidation of organic material.
2. Oxidation: Gently heat the mixture. The heating should be controlled to avoid
violent reactions, as the mixture can produce heat during oxidation. Allow the
mixture to reach a gentle boil and maintain this for a few minutes. This process
ensures that all the organic matter in the soil sample is oxidized completely,
converting the organic carbon into carbon dioxide, which can then be measured
indirectly.

87
 3. Cooling: Once the mixture has heated, let it cool to room [Link] step is
critical because titration needs to be performed at room temperature to ensure
accuracy.
4. Titration: Once the mixture has cooled, it is time to perform the titration. Use a
burette to add ferrous ammonium sulphate to the cooled solution. A noticeable colour
shift indicates the titration's endpoint. Initially, the solution will be orange-brown due
to the presence of excess dichromate, but as ferrous ammonium sulphate is added, it
will turn green. The endpoint is reached when the solution turns from orange-brown
to a light green, indicating that all excess potassium dichromate has reacted.
5. Calculating Organic Carbon Content: Measure the amount of ferrous ammonium
sulphate used in the titration to get the amount of organic carbon. The stoichiometry
of the reaction between potassium dichromate and ferrous ammonium sulphate serves
as the basis for the formula used to determine the amount of organic
[Link], the amount of organic carbon is calculated in percentage or as parts
per million (ppm) based on the volume of titrant used.

5. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

to ascertain the soil's ability to exchange and hold onto cations, which are necessary for the
availability of nutrients.

Materials Needed: To carry out the CEC analysis, the following materials are required:
 Ammonium Acetate Solution: A 1M solution of ammonium acetate is used for
leaching the soil sample. This solution is crucial as it displaces exchangeable
cations from the soil particles, allowing for their subsequent analysis.
 Filtration Apparatus: This equipment is necessary to separate the liquid phase
containing the displaced cations from the solid soil particles after leaching. The
filtration process ensures that only the liquid leachate, which contains the cations,
is analyzed.
 Spectrophotometer for Ion Analysis: A spectrophotometer, particularly for atomic
absorption spectroscopy (AAS), is used to quantitatively Assess the leachate's cation
content, including that of sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium
(Mg). This examination is necessary to comprehend the soil's nutritional
composition.
88
Procedure: The procedure for determining the cation exchange capacity involves several
key steps:

1. Leaching: Begin by weighing 10 grams of the soil sample collected from the
Yavatmal district. This soil sample should be representative of the agricultural
land in the area. Add 100 mL of 1M ammonium acetate solution to the soil in a
suitable container. The ammonium ions in the solution will displace the
exchangeable cations attached to the soil particles, effectively leaching them into
the solution. This step is critical as it allows for the extraction of cations that are
available for plant uptake.
2. Filtration: Once the leaching is complete, the next step is to filter the mixture.
Use a filtration apparatus, such as a Buchner funnel or a simple filter paper setup,
to separate the liquid phase (leachate) from the solid residues. The filtered
leachate will contain the cations that were previously held in the soil. It is
essential to ensure that the filtration process is thorough to prevent any soil
particles from contaminating the leachate, which could affect the accuracy of the
subsequent analysis.
3. Analysis: After obtaining the clear leachate, the next step is to analyze it for its
cation content. This is done using atomic absorption spectroscopy, which provides a
precise measurement of the amounts of the different cations, such as Na, K, Ca, and
Mg. Each of these cations has a distinct function in the nourishment of plants:sodium
is important for osmoregulation; potassium is crucial for enzyme activation and
photosynthesis; calcium is vital for cell wall structure and stability; and magnesium
is a key component of chlorophyll. By analyzing the leachate, we can determine the
CEC of the soil, which helps assess its fertility and capacity to support agricultural
activities.

Significance of CEC in Agriculture: Understanding the cation exchange capacity is

essential for effective agricultural planning in Yavatmal district. Soils with high CEC can
retain more nutrients, thus requiring less frequent fertilization and supporting better crop
yields. Conversely, soils with low CEC may lead to nutrient leaching and reduced
agricultural productivity. Farmers and agricultural planners may improve the sustainability
and effectiveness of agricultural activities in the area by using the CEC to guide their
choices regarding crop selection, soil amendments, and fertiliser application techniques.

6. Micronutrient Analysis (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn)

89
To assess the availability of essential micronutrients.
Materials Needed
To conduct the micronutrient analysis, the following materials are essential:
 DTPA Extraction Solution: DTPA (Diethylene Triamine Pentaacetic Acid) is a
chelating agent used to extract micronutrients from the soil. This solution helps
in mobilizing the micronutrients, making them available for analysis.
 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS): This analytical instrument is
crucial for measuring the concentrations of micronutrients in the extracted
solution. AAS works by detecting the absorption of light by vaporized samples,
allowing for precise quantification of metal ions.

Procedure
The procedure for the micronutrient analysis involves several systematic steps:
1. Extraction: Begin by taking a representative soil sample of 10 grams from the
study area. This sample should ideally reflect the soil characteristics of the
Yavatmal district. Add this soil sample to 20 mL of the DTPA extraction solution
in a suitable container. To ensure optimal extraction, shake the mixture
thoroughly for a duration of two hours at room temperature. This shaking process
facilitates the interaction between the DTPA and the soil particles, allowing the
chelating agent to bind with the micronutrients present in the soil.
2. Filtration: After the shaking period, the mixture must be filtered to separate the
soil particles from the liquid extract. Use a filter paper or a fine mesh to ensure
that only the liquid extract, which contains the dissolved micronutrients, is
collected. This step is crucial as it prepares the extract for subsequent analysis,
ensuring that the measurements taken are not influenced by solid soil particles.
3. Concentration Measurement: The filtered extract is then subjected to analysis
using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Prior to measurement, calibrate
the instrument with standard solutions of Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn to ensure accuracy.
Once calibrated, introduce the extract into the spectrophotometer to measure the
concentrations of each micronutrient. The AAS operates at specific wavelengths
corresponding to each metal ion, allowing for precise quantification based on the
light absorption characteristics of each element.

7. Nitrogen Analysis
90
To determine the nitrogen content, crucial for plant growth.
Materials Needed
Materials Needed

To carry out the nitrogen analysis effectively, the following materials are required:

 Concentrated Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄): This strong acid is necessary for digesting
the soil sample, breaking down organic matter, and converting nitrogen compounds
into a form that can be measured.
 Catalyst (e.g., Selenium): A catalyst is essential to facilitate the digestion process.
Selenium acts as a catalyst, helping to speed up the breakdown of organic materials
in the soil and ensuring a complete reaction.
 Distillation Apparatus: This equipment is crucial for the separation of nitrogen
compounds from the digested solution. A distillation flask, condenser, and receiving
flask are usually included in order to collect the distilled nitrogen components.

 Titration Setup: This includes a burette, pipette, and titration flask, which are
necessary for measuring the volume of standard acid used to determine the nitrogen
content in the distillate.

Procedure

1. Digestion: Start by weighing 1 gram of the soil sample to ensure accuracy. Place this
sample in a digestion flask and add 20 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid. The soil
sample should be thoroughly mixed with the acid. A catalyst, such as selenium, is
then introduced to the mixture. Heat the flask gently on a hot plate, allowing the
solution to boil. Continue heating until the solution turns clear, indicating that the
organic matter has been sufficiently digested. This process may take several hours
and requires careful monitoring to prevent excessive boiling or splattering.
2. Distillation: Once the digestion is complete and the solution is clear, the next step is
distillation. Transfer the digested solution to the distillation apparatus. Heat the flask
to initiate distillation, which separates the nitrogen compounds from the other
components in the solution. The nitrogen compounds in the solution are transported
to the condenser during the vaporisation process, where they cool and condense back

91
 into liquid. As you move the distillate, make sure no material is lost by collecting it
in a different flask.
3. Titration: After obtaining the distillate, the next step is to quantify the nitrogen
content through titration. Take a measured volume of the distillate and place it in a
titration flask. Prepare a standard acid solution (commonly hydrochloric acid or
sulfuric acid) of known concentration. Using a burette, gradually add the acid to the
distillate while continuously swirling the flask. An appropriate indicator added to the
solution (such methyl red or phenolphthalein) usually changes colour to indicate the
titration's [Link] the volume of the titrant used to reach the endpoint.

Calculation of Results
Titrant volume employed in the titration method may be used to determine the amount of
nitrogen in the soil sample The formula often used for this calculation is:

8. Phosphorus Analysis
To evaluate the availability of phosphorus, an essential macronutrient.
Materials Needed
To conduct the phosphorus analysis, the following materials are essential:
1. Olsen Extraction Solution: This is a sodium bicarbonate solution that
effectively extracts available phosphorus from the soil. The composition of the
solution is crucial as it determines the efficiency of phosphorus extraction.
2. Colorimetric Analysis Setup: This includes the necessary equipment for
colorimetric measurement, such as a spectrophotometer, test tubes, and pipettes.
The colorimetric method relies on the principle that the intensity of color
developed in the solution is proportional to the concentration of phosphorus
present.
Procedure
The phosphorus analysis involves several key steps, each designed to ensure accurate
and reliable results:
1. Extraction:

92
  Begin by weighing 5 grams of the soil sample collected from the Yavatmal district.
Making ensuring the soil sample accurately represents the region under study is
crucial.
 Add 50 milliliters of the Olsen extraction solution to the soil sample. The sodium
bicarbonate in the solution helps to solubilize phosphorus compounds in the soil.
 Shake the mixture thoroughly for 30 minutes. This agitation improves the release of
phosphorus into the liquid phase by enabling the best possible contact between the
soil particles and the extraction solution.
2. Filtration:
 The solid soil particles must be separated from the liquid extract by filtering the
mixture after it has been [Link] a filter paper or a filtration apparatus to obtain a
clear extract. This step is crucial to ensure that only the dissolved phosphorus in the
solution is measured, avoiding interference from solid particles.

3. Colorimetric Measurement:
 Once the extract is obtained, the next step is to measure the concentration of
available phosphorus using a colorimetric method. Typically, this involves
adding a reagent to the extract that will react with phosphorus to produce a color
change.
 A spectrophotometer, which measures the absorbance at a particular wavelength, is
then used to determine the intensity of the colour that has been created. It is possible
to quantify the absorbance since it is directly correlated with the phosphorus quantity
in the sample.
 Calibration with known phosphorus standards is essential to ensure accuracy in the
measurement. The phosphorus content in the unknown sample may be ascertained
from its observed absorbance by creating a standard curve that plots known
phosphorus concentrations against their corresponding absorbance values.

9. Potassium Analysis
To assess the potassium content, which is vital for plant growth.
Materials Needed
Materials Needed: To effectively conduct potassium analysis, the following materials
are required:
 Ammonium Acetate: This reagent is used to extract potassium from the soil
sample. It acts as an effective solvent, helping to release potassium ions from soil
93
 particles.
 Flame Photometer: This instrument is utilized to quantify the potassium
concentration in the extract. The flame photometer operates on the principle of
atomic emission spectroscopy, where the intensity of light emitted by the ionized
potassium in a flame correlates with its concentration.
Procedure
1. Extraction: The first step in the potassium analysis involves the extraction of
potassium ions from the soil. A soil sample weighing 10 grams is taken and
mixed with 100 milliliters of ammonium acetate solution. This solution provides
a favorable environment for potassium ions to dislodge from the soil matrix. The
mixture is then shaken vigorously for 30 minutes. This duration is critical as it
allows sufficient interaction between the ammonium acetate and the soil,
ensuring that the maximum amount of potassium is extracted into the solution.
2. Filtration: Filtering the mixture to remove the solid soil particles from the liquid
extract comes next after the extraction procedure .This is typically done using filter
paper or a vacuum filtration system. The filtration process ensures that only the
liquid containing the dissolved potassium ions is collected for subsequent analysis. It
is essential to perform this step carefully to avoid any contamination that could affect
the accuracy of the results.
3. Flame Photometry: The final step involves measuring the potassium concentration
in the filtrate using a flame photometer. The procedure entails introducing the
filtered solution into the flame photometer, where it is atomized and exposed to a
flame. When ignited by the flame's heat, the potassium ions in the sample release
light with a certain wavelength. Next, the intensity of the light that is released is
measured .To quantify the potassium concentration accurately, the intensity of the
sample is compared to that of known potassium standards prepared with varying
concentrations. This comparison allows for the determination of the potassium
content in the original soil sample.

Table 3.4: Initial properties of experimental soil

Sr.
Particular Unit V
No. al
ue

94
 s
A) Chemical properties
1. Soil pH -- 7.
72
2. Electrical Conductivity dSm-1 0.
27
3. Organic Carbon gkg-1 5.
50
4. Calcium Carbonate gkg-1 88
.0
0
5. Available Nitrogen kgha-1 15
8.
00
6. Available Phosphorus kgha-1 13
.6
9
7. AvailablePotassium kgha-1 51
0.
60
8. DTPAFe mgkg-1 4.
06
9. DTPAMn mgkg-1 4.
48
10. DTPAZn mgkg-1 0.
47
11. DTPACu mgkg-1 1.
92
B) Biological properties
1. Bacteria CFUx 10-7 soil 29
.2
2
2. Actinomycetes CFUx 10-5 soil 23
95
 .9
5
3. Fungi CFUx 10-4 soil 3.
00
C) Soil enzymes
1. Acid phosphatase μgg-1soil 33
.1
2
2 Alkaline phosphatase μgg-1soil 37
.6
7
3. Dehydrogenase μgg-1soil 43
.6
6

3.8 Land Resource Data

To create a landform map, a reconnaissance soil survey was carried out between April 11
and May 10, 2006, utilising Survey of India (SOI) 1:50,000 scale topo sheets as base maps
and Indian Remote Sensing -P6 false colour [Link] landforms were identified,
, which cover 8.05 percent of the area. Other identified landforms include gullied stony
gravelly wastelands (3.48 percent) and gently to moderately sloping alluvial plains (17.74
percent). In the centre and northern parts of Yavatmal, hills and ridges make up 12.6% of the
total area. The morphological features of the soil profiles were documented after they were
analysed down to a depth of two meters or until lithic contact was reached. Subgroup-level
soil taxonomy keys were used to classify the, resulting in the formation of thirty-three soil
series with specified class restrictions. These soil mapping units were determined by
analyzing the relationships between the soil series and were represented in a resultant soil
map containing forty-eight mapping units within the Geomedia environment.

96
 Fig 3.9Soilmapofyavatmaldistrict

3.9 Land Evaluation for Irrigation

The following procedures were outlined for assessing land for irrigation purposes: -

Step 1: A map of the soil and the current land cover/use were created and entered into the
GIS.

Step 2: The use of limiting symbol equations allowed for the specification of the soil and
salinity limits of each series in the numerator, as well as the topographical and drainage
constraints in the denominators.

Step 3: For each soil series found in the district, a capacity index is developed utilizing the
following factors: drainage, slope, salinity/alkalinity, soil texture, depth, and CaCO3
concentration.

Step 4: To grade soil units, multiply the percentage of each kind of soil by the corresponding
soil rating. To calculate the final soil category complex should not be added to the rating of
non-irrigable portions.

Step.5- With the use of Geomedia, decision criteria for irrigation were provided, and priority
regions that are appropriate for irrigated agriculture were generated accordingly.

3.10 Physical and chemical characteristics of soils

Table 2 shows that in the soil control section, the soils of and Waghari (P30) have fine
loamy particles with a clay content lower than 35%. Over 60% of the Apti, Chanoda,
Dhanki, Hirdi, Lakhi, and Penganga families include clay, which has minuscule particle
[Link] clay soils and other soils with very fine particles provide a serious threat to
97
root development and air circulation because to their shrink-swell behavior, COLE values
between 0.1 and 0.2, and bulk densities between 1.57 and 1.79 Mg/m³. Because smectites
regulate the amount of shrinkage, these soils have high COLE values.

With a standard variation of 2.95%, these soils typically contain 12.65% plant-available
water. To find out how much water plants have access to, one may apply a multiple
regression equation that has a R² value of 0.294 and a F value of 2.25. According to Table 3,
these soils have minimal salt content and are moderately to severely alkaline. The formula to
get the percentage of water that is accessible to plants is as follows: -6.39% plus 0.156 for
sand, 0.283 for silt, and 0.189 for clay, subtracted from 0.433 for organic carbon (g/kg) and
0.022 for calcium carbonate (g/kg). Less than 0.5 percent to 0.7 percent organic carbon is
present in most soils, with 33 percent of soils lying somewhere in the center. Other soils
including Chanoda (P6), Jamwadi (P11), Koulambi (P13), Katherwadi (P14), Korta (P15),
and many more have calcium carbonate concentrations ranging from less than 1% in the
Dhanki series (P8) to 5% to 10%. The Wani (P32) series has a calcium carbonate weighted
average of 94.6 g/kg, whereas the Arunavati (P1), Saykheda (P27), and Waghari (P30) series
each contain 125.48 g/kg.

Table 2 shows that the soils in question had a moderate amount of accessible nitrogen (33.17
mg/kg) and a low amount of phosphorus (0.74), which is in line with what has been found in
the past about the fertility of dark soils in India. In the majority of soils, The DTPA-
extractable iron concentration is below 4 mg/kg in most soils, but in the Kalamb (P12),
Nagdhari (P22), Pandhurna (P23), Ralegaon (P26), and Sindola (P29) series, it ranges
between 4 to 6 mg/kg. Zinc levels, as determined by DTPA extraction, vary between 0.2 to
1.5 mg/kg, with most soils falling within the medium range. Zinc levels, however, fall below
the necessary threshold (1 mg/kg) in the Gahuli (P9), Kalamb (P12), Nagdhari (P22),
Ralegaon (P26), Sindola (P29), and Wanodi (P31) series.

Table 3.5Physical and chemical characteristics of soils

Soil series Particle size BD PAW ASW COL pHO CaC CEC Availabl DTPA
distribution (Mg C (cm/ E C O3 (cmo e extracta
(<2mm) m- (%) m) l/ kg) ble
3) (g/kg) (mg/kg)
Sand Silt clay N P2O Fe Zn
5

98
[Link](Av) 49 32. 18.3 1.57 12.0 18.1 0.10 8.5 3.9 12 38.0 34. 0.5 6.6 0.7
7 5.5 1
[Link](Ar) 13 49. 37.2 1.79 20.4 34.5 0.22 8.7 3.9 - 51.4 28. 1.7 5.0 0.9
8 3
[Link](Ai) 3.2 30. 66.6 1.74 10.1 12.2 0.19 8.8 2.9 14 53.0 58. 0.8 7.3 0.7
2 5.5 4
[Link](Bo) 12 39. 48.6 1.62 10.3 11.2 0.19 8.4 5.1 69. 54.4 46. 0.7 5.6 0.8
4 4 7
[Link](Ci 24.8 39. 36.2 1.61 12.6 23.7 0.15 8.4 3.2 65. 40.1 35. 0.5 6.4 0.9
) 0 0 2
[Link](Ch) 2.8 28. 68.5 1.83 15.8 42.9 0.21 8.1 1.4 40. 67.1 39. 0.9 7.0 0.8
7 2 7
[Link](Dh) 6.1 41. 52.6 1.69 10.16 5.1 0.19 8.1 6.5 64. 70.0 31. 0.7 4.9 1.1
3 5 2
[Link](Dk) 1.3 34. 64.4 1.72 11.9 34.7 0.23 8.1 4.6 7.1 70.1 40. 0.1 7.2 1.0
3 4
[Link](Gh) 10.2 39. 50.3 1.48 11.1 2.8 0.15 8.0 2.5 5.6 61.7 - - 7.4 0.4
5
[Link](Hi) 2.6 31. 66.0 1.71 15.5 22.6 0.18 6.9 5.8 - 53.4 - - 7.6 0.7
4
[Link](Jm) 13.1 38. 48.7 1.79 10.9 7.8 0.21 7.6 7.4 42. 72.6 55. 1.6 4.2 1.5
2 8 9
[Link](Km) 3.2 41. 55.6 1.64 14.8 38.6 0.18 8.1 2.7 - 59.5 - - 1.2 0.2
2
[Link](Ka) 19.9 39. 41.1 1.69 10.6 15.8 0.21 8.2 4.2 10 61.5 51. 1.3 7.4 1.0
0 6.5 5
[Link](K 11.6 34. 54.0 1.74 17.0 28.4 0.20 8.9 4.1 - 56.5 52. 0.6 7.3 0.8
w) 4 6
[Link](Ko) 23.1 24. 52.9 1.79 10.1 8.9 0.24 8.0 2.8 38. 62.5 46. 0.5 5.4 1.1
0 1 7
[Link](Kb) 11.8 30. 59.2 1.74 16.3 36.5 0.21 8.1 3.2 - 60.8 37. 2.8 5.3 0.9
0 5
[Link](Lo) 12.7 49. 32.3 1.57 16.2 40.9 0.18 7.9 1.0 8.4 46.0 28. 1.0 6.4 0.8

99
 0 3
[Link](Lk) 5.4 28. 67.0 1.70 11.6 5.1 0.20 8.4 2.6 16. 66.9 - 1.5 7.9 0.7
0 5
[Link](Mt) 20.4 33. 46.5 1.65 11.8 3.9 0.18 6.6 5.7 - 52.2 78. 4.7 8.0 1.5
1 4
[Link](Mo) 20.9 31. 48.1 1.56 11.6 8.0 0.17 7.2 1.3 3.5 57.3 63. 0.7 9.3 1.1
0 1
[Link](Ma 7.5 33. 59.3 1.71 16.1 11.6 0.19 8.1 6.6 21. 63.4 52. 1.2 6.4 0.7
) 2 9 4
[Link](Ng) 10.7 40. 49.3 1.69 9.4 27.9 0.11 8.3 0.8 - 46.8 - - 1.1 0.4
0
[Link](Pd 26.4 33. 40.1 1.57 13.6 31.9 0.22 8.2 4.7 87. 51.3 42. 0.7 5.8 0.8
) 4 7 5
24. 29.4 18. 52.4 1.52 11.7 1.9 0.15 7.5 3.6 4.1 62.6 - - 7.5 0.7
Pandharkawada 2
(Pk)
[Link]((Pg)1.5 34. 64.1 1.79 11.2 18.9 0.21 8.3 5.3 63. 50.8 37. 0.5 5.5 0.9
4 9 9
[Link](Ra) 9.9 44. 45.5 1.70 12.6 18.3 0.17 8.2 4.8 - 54.4 - - 0.7 0.7
6
[Link](Sy) 28.0 42. 29.3 1.58 8.6 20.5 0.15 8.4 4.5 11 49.5 44. 0.5 6.4 0.8
7 2.5 6
[Link](Sd) 4.3 35. 59.2 1.77 14.7 39.2 0.19 8.9 2.6 11 66.7 42. 0.5 7.1 0.9
5 2.6 7
[Link](Sn) 5.7 41. 53.0 1.69 15.9 14.1 0.17 7.7 4.1 - 53.0 - - 1.5 0.3
3
[Link](Wg) 27.6 36. 36.0 1.61 8.6 6.7 0.20 8.3 6.9 94. 67.1 56. 1.1 6.0 0.8
4 6 0
[Link](Wd) 4.3 38. 57.3 1.68 12.2 31.0 0.20 8.3 1.6 - 41.2 25. 0.4 4.7 0.4
4 8
[Link](Wn) 18.8 33. 48.4 1.70 15.5 36.7 0.21 8.3 2.9 75. 56.7 31. 0.5 6.2 0.8
6 5 0
[Link](Wj) 20.3 38. 41.7 1.55 7.2 4.5 0.16 7.8 6.6 61. 46.9 80. 0.1 7.4 0.6

100
 1 6 4

3.11 Soil Biological Properties

A particular set of microflora was isolated from soil using three distinct mediums for
bacteria, fungus, and actinomycetes. Using the serial dilution approach as outlined by
Pramer and Schmidt (1964), the soil microbial count was calculated. Below is a
breakdown of these media's makeup.

Nutrient Agar medium (For Bacteria)

1. Beefextract :3g

2. Peptone :5g

3. NaCl :1g

4. AgarAgar : 15 g

5. Distilledwater : 1000 ml

6. pHto beadjusted : 7.00

Rose Bengal Agar medium (For Fungi)

1. Dextrose : 10 g

2. Lactose :5g

3. KH2SO4/KH2PO4 :1g

4. MgSO4,7H2O :1g

5. RoseBengal : 1 ml

6. Streptomycin : 3 ml
101
 7. Agar-Agar : 15 g

8. Distilledwater : 1000 ml

9. pHto beadjusted : 7. 00

Ken knight medium (For Actinomycetes)

1. Dextrose : 1g

2. KH2SO4 : 0.1 g

3. NaNO3 : 0.1 g

4. KCl : 0.1 g

5. MgSO4 : 0.1 ml

6. Agar-Agar : 15 g

7. Distilledwater : 1000 ml

9. pH to beadjusted : 7 .00

3.12 Soil Sampling & Soil Analysis

Soil sampling When it comes to agricultural planning in Maharashtra, a geographical study
of soil qualities is essential, as is soil analysis. In order to learn about the soil's fertility and
other features, it is necessary to collect a sample that is statistically typical of the soil in a
given location. To accurately reflect the variance in soil qualities across the profile, it is
recommended to take soil samples from several depths, often falling between the range of 0
to 15 cm, 15 to 30 cm, and 30 to 60 cm. To make sure the sample is really representative of
the investigated region, sampling should be done in a methodical way, either along transects
or in a grid pattern.

102
Soil analysis: comprises many tests to determine the physical, chemical, and biological
properties of the soil. These assessments might include:

1. Through the measurement of the soil's clay, silt, and sand content, soil texture analysis
may reveal the soil's nutrient availability and water-holding capacity.

2. Soil pH testing, which uncovers information about the soil's nutritional availability by
measuring its acidity or alkalinity.

3. Analysis of soil nutrients, which establishes the levels of vital plant nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the soil.

4. Soil organic matter analysis evaluates the soil's fertility and water-holding capacity by
measuring the amount of organic matter present in the soil.

You may utilize the soil test findings to find out what crops will grow best in that area, what
kinds of fertilizer and soil amendments will work best, and how to plan and manage your
land's usage.

3.12.1 Soil test:

Borings for low-rise subterranean buildings may be set to a depth of at least one hole
extending deeper, about 6 meters below the anticipated foundation level,up to the lowest
underground structure dimension, or refusal, whichever is lower. For subterranean
constructions more than three stories tall or 12 meters in height, Every 230 square metres of
the structure's size should have a soil boring stated. For large underground structures
constructed on poor soils, borings should be done at intervals of less than 15 meters. It is
recommended that at least five borings be made, one in the centre of the underground
structure and the others at its corners.

Order of soil suitability for foundation support:

Best: Bed rock

Very good: Sand and gravel

Good: Medium to hard clay (that is kept dry)

Poor: Silts and soft clay

Undesirable: Organic silts and organic clay

Unsuitable: Peat
103
 The plasticity index:

The soil's plasticity index (PI) tells us how much clay will expand or contract. The shrink-
swell potential is higher when the PI is larger.

PI of 0 –15%: Low expansion potential

PI of 15–25%: Medium expansion potential

PI of 25% and above: High expansion potential

Table 3.6 Typical mass density of basic soil types:

Table 3.7Typical values of modulus of elasticity (Es) for different types of soil:

Type of soil Es (N/mm2)

Clay

Very soft 2–15

Soft 5–25

Medium 15–50

Hard 50–100

104
Sandy 25–250

Glacial till

Loose 10–153

Dense 144–720

Very dense 478–1,440

Loess 14–57

Sand

Silty 7–21

Loose 10–24

Dense 48–81

Sand and gravel

Loose 48–148

Dense 96–192

Shale 144–14,400

Silt 2–20

Table 3.8 Typical values of modulus of elasticity of submerged reaction (ks) for
different types of soils:

105
 Table 3.3
Clayey soil:

qu £ 200 N/mm2 12,000–24,000

200 <qu £ 400 N/mm2 24,000–48,000

qu> 800 N/mm2 > 48,000

qu – Safe bearing capacity

Table 3.9 Typical values of Poisson’s ratio (u) for soils:

Table 3.10 Allowable bearing pressure on soils (for preliminary design):

Type of rock/soil Allowable Std. penetration Apparent cohesion

bearing blow count (N) Cu (Kpa)

Pressure(Kn/m2)

106
Hard rock without

lamination

and defects (e.g., granite,

and diorite) 3,200 >30

Laminated rocks (e.g., sand-

stone and lime-stone in sound

condition) 1,600 >30

Soft or broken rock, hard shale,

cemented material 900 30 —

Soft rock 450

Gravel Dense 450 >30 —

Medium 96–285 >30 —

Compact and dry Loose and dry

Sand* Coarse 450 250 30–50

—

Medium 250 48–120 15–30

Fine or silt 150 100 <15

Very stiff 190–450 15–30 100–200

Clay+ Medium stiff 200–250 4–15 25–100

Soft 50–100 0–4 0–25

Peat, silts, to be determined after investigation made-up ground

107
 Table 3.11 Typical interface friction angles (NAVFAC1982)

Interface materials Interface friction angle d

Clean sound rock 25

Clean gravel, gravel-sand

mixtures 29-31
Coarse sand
Clean fine to medium sand, silty 24-29

Mass concrete against Medium to coarse sand, silty or 19-24

clayey gravel
Clean fine sand, silty or clayey
fine to medium sand

Fine sandy silt, non-plastic silt

17-19

Medium-stiff, stiff and silty clay

17-19
Clean gravel, gravel-sand
mixture, well-graded rock fill 22-26
with spalls
Formed concrete Clean gravel, silty sand-gravel
against mixture Single-size hard rock fill 17-22
Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed
17
with silt, or clay
Fine sandy silt, non-plastic silt 14
Clean gravel, gravel-sand
mixture, well-graded rock fill 22
with spalls
Steel sheet piles Clean sand, silty sand-gravel
17
against mixture single-size hard rock fill
Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed
14
with silt or clay
Fine sandy silt, non-plastic silt 11

Table 3.12 Typical values of fundamental period of soil deposits (for rock motion with
Amax=0.4g (SEAOC1980):

Soil depth (m) Dense sand (s) 5 m of fill over normally

consolidated clay*(S)

10 0.3–0.5 0.5–1.0

108
30 0.6–1.2 1.5–2.3

60 1.0–1.8 1.8–2.8

90 1.5–2.3 2.0–3.0

150 2.0–3.5 —

Table 3.7

Table 3.13 Mean shear wave velocity (m/s) for the top 30m of ground (Borcherdt1994):

General description Mean shear–wave velocity

Minimum Average Maximum

Firm and hard rocks 1400 1620 ___

Hard rocks

(e.g., metamorphic rocks

with very widely

spaced fractures)

Firm to hard rocks 700 1050

1400
(e.g., granites, igneous rocks,

conglomerates, sandstones, and

shales

with close to widely spaced

fractures)

Gravelly soils and soft to firm

rocks

(e.g., soft igneous sedimentary 375 540

rocks, 700

sandstones, shales, gravels, and soils

with

> 20% gravel)

Stiff clays and sandy soils

109
 (e.g., loose to very dense sands, silt

loams, sandy clays, and medium 200 290 375

stiff to

hard clays and silty clays (N > 5

blows/

300mm)

Soft soils

(e.g., loose submerged fills and very

soft

(N < 5 blows/300 mm) clays and 100 150 200

silty

clays < 37 m thick)

Very soft soils

(e.g., loose saturated sand,

marshland,

recent reclamation)
50? 75? 100

3.11 Soil analysis implies

 Taking soil samples

The first stage of soil analysis is the methodical gathering of soil samples from different
sites across the chosen Maharashtra districts. Taking topography, land use patterns, and
plant cover into account, this approach aims to capture the regional variability of soil
attributes. In order to get a thorough profile of the soil, soil samples are usually gathered
using augers or soil coring equipment, making sure that samples are taken from various
depths.
Soil analysis is a systematic scientific approach that involves laboratory testing and
evaluation of the collected soil samples. These tests are used to assess critical elements such
soil texture, organic matter, pH, nutrient content, and moisture retention capacity.

Laboratory analysis of samples

110
 A thorough knowledge of the soil matrix, which is obtained via the painstaking process of
soil analysis, is the cornerstone of well-informed agricultural [Link], being a dynamic
and complex medium, requires a systematic investigation of its physical and chemical
attributes to unravel the mysteries hidden beneath the surface. In the context of our study, A
Geographical Study of Soil Properties for Agriculture Planning in Selected Districts of
Maharashtra, soil analysis takes center stage as we delve into the intricate details of the
selected districts' soil profiles. In essence, soil analysis entails collecting soil samples from
various points within the research region and then transporting them into the laboratory's
controlled environment. Here, these samples undergo a series of sophisticated tests and
analyses, each designed to unveil specific facets of the soil's composition.

Fig. 3.11Soil testing Lab

 The interpretation of the results by the issuance of fertilizer recommendation.

Soil analysis is a fundamental component of modern agriculture, serving as a scientific tool

to assess and understand the soil's ecological, physical, and chemical characteristics. In
order to assess nutrient levels, pH, and other crucial properties, soil samples are
systematically collected and [Link] culmination of soil analysis lies in the
interpretation of the results, a crucial step that guides the issuance of fertilizer
recommendations. By bridging the gap between unprocessed data and useful insights, this
interpretive stage enables farmers and other agricultural professionals to make educated
decisions about crop selection, fertiliser management, and overall soil health improvement.

3.12 Statistical Analysis

111
The data were analysed using statistical techniques including regression analysis and
ANOVA. The study's findings and research issues were addressed with the help of the
statistical results. Since our study collected both primary and secondary data for analysis and
interpretation, we quantified the majority of the qualitative data before using descriptive
analysis to explain the findings. The data analysis and presentations for this study were
carried out with the assistance of SPSS and Microsoft Excel. When it comes to the creation
of a model, we make use of SPSS for the representation of variables and organisations. We
utilised the SPSS test to determine the reliability of the data, and then we carried out the
statistical tests that were listed below in order to get the findings that we needed to
accomplish our hypothesis.

3.13 Laboratory and Experimental Work

The Indian state of Maharashtra has the Yavatmal District, which is well known for its
agricultural importance .The diverse agricultural practices in this district are highly
dependent on the soil's properties, which directly influence crop yield and sustainability. To
ensure effective agricultural planning and enhance productivity, a comprehensive
understanding of soil characteristics is essential. This study focuses on the collection and
analysis of soil samples from Yavatmal District, with a detailed examination conducted at
Aqua Laboratories India (Opc) Pvt Ltd in Akurdi, Pune.

Soil Sample Collection

In our study, soil samples were meticulously collected from various locations within
Yavatmal District to represent different agricultural zones and land types. The sampling
process involved:

1. Selection of Sampling Sites: Based on the agricultural practices, soil types, and crop
patterns, strategic sites were chosen across the district. This included fields with
varying crop types, irrigation practices, and soil management techniques.

2. Sample Collection Procedure: To guarantee precision and dependability, soil

samples were gathered using accepted techniques. A soil auger was used to collect
samples from a range of depths (0–15 cm, 15–30 cm, and 30–60 cm) in order to give
a comprehensive profile of the soil's [Link] sample was carefully placed in
clean, labeled containers to prevent contamination.

Analysis at Aqua Laboratories India (Opc) Pvt Ltd

112
At Aqua Laboratories India (Opc) Pvt Ltd, the soil samples from Yavatmal District
underwent a series of rigorous analyses to ascertain their chemical, biological, and physical
[Link] key tests and analyses conducted include:

1. Physical Properties:

o Soil Texture: The texture of the soil was assessed using the hydrometer method,
which measures the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil.
o This sheds light on soil structure and how it affects drainage and water retention.
o Bulk Density:Soil compaction was evaluated by measuring bulk density. Increased
bulk density often denotes compacted soil, which may impede water penetration and
root development.

2. Chemical Properties:

o pH Level: To ascertain if the soil was acidic or alkaline, its pH was measured. This
is important because it impacts microbial activity and nutrient availability.

o Nutrient Content: Chemical extraction techniques were used to analyse essential

elements including potassium (K), phosphorus (P), and nitrogen (N). The findings
aid in determining the fertility of the soil and if fertiliser treatment is necessary.

o Organic Matter Content: Using the loss-on-ignition approach, the fraction of

organic components may be determined. The soil's structure, water retention
capacity, and nutrient availability are all enhanced by organic matter, making it
essential for soil health.
3. Biological Properties:
o Microbial Activity: Soil samples were analyzed for microbial activity, which
include the existence and functioning of helpful microbes. Understanding soil health
and its capacity to promote plant development requires knowledge of this.

4. Soil Moisture Content:

o To evaluate the soil's ability to store water, its moisture content was measured.
Planning and managing irrigation effectively requires this knowledge.

113
114
  Analytical procedures

The analytical procedures for various physical parameters, natural nutrient (soil organic
carbon), Micronutrients (boron, iron, zinc, manganese, and copper), secondary nutrients
(sulphur, calcium, and magnesium), and main nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium) and molybdenum), toxic heavy metals (lead, chromium, cadmium and nickel)
and radio activity analysis are discussed.

 Correlation Coefficient

One name for it is Pearson's Correlation. To get the product-moment correlation coefficient,
take the standard deviation and covariance of the two variables and multiply them. As far as
signs of dependence between values go, this is by far the most popular. Karl Pearson's
coefficient was based on Francis Galton's somewhat different but related theory.

When two random variables X and Y have deviations from standard σX and σY and
expected values μX and μY, the population Pearson correlation (ρX,Y) between the two is
defined as follows.

where the covariance is denoted by cov, the expected value operator by E, and the
commonly used alternative notation for Pearson's correlation is [Link] competency
traits were studied using the Correlation Coefficient.

115
Particle Size Distribution Calculation: It is possible to ascertain the particle size
distribution of soil samples by looking at their percentages of sand, silt, and [Link] aids in
identifying the class of soil texture.

The formulas for calculating the percentages are:

 Percentage of Sand (PS) = (Sand %)

 Percentage of Silt (PI) = (Silt %)

 Percentage of Clay (PC) = (Clay %)

The soil texture may then be categorised using these percentages in accordance with various
categorisation schemes or the USDA Soil Texture Triangle.
Bulk Density Calculation: Bulk density, which includes pore spaces, is the mass of dry soil
per unit volume (BD).The bulk density formula is:

Megagrammes per cubic meter (Mg/m³) or grammes per cubic centimetre (g/cm³) are the
usual quantities used to indicate bulk density.
Particle Density Calculation: Particle density (PD) is defined as the mass of solid soil
particles per unit volume, excluding pore spaces. The formula for particle density is is

Megagrammes per cubic meter (Mg/m2) or grammes per cubic centimetre (g/cm2) are other
common quantities used to represent particle density.

Porosity Calculation: Porosity (P) is the proportion of the soil's pore space. The following
formula may be used to compute it using bulk density (BD) and particle density (PD):

Some theoretical background related to the physical properties of soil as outlined in

the table:

116
1. Soil Texture and Composition:

The amount of clay, silt, and sand in a given sample dictates the soil's [Link] size of
these particles affects a variety of characteristics, including drainage, nutrient availability,
and water retention.

The biggest particles are sand, which allows for excellent drainage but reduces the retention
of water and nutrients.

The medium-sized silt particles help keep soil fertile by retaining water and nutrients.

Although clay particles are tiny and may retain a lot of water and nutrients, they can also
produce compaction and drainage problems in large quantities.

2. Munsell Soil Color Notation:

Sorting soil colors according to hue, value (how bright or dark they are), and chroma (how
intense they are) is done using the Munsell color system. Several characteristics, including
the amount of organic matter, drainage, and mineral composition, may be revealed by the
color of the soil. Soil fertility and composition may be shown by different tints and values.

3. Bulk Density and Porosity:

Both the mass of the soil's solid particles and its pore spaces are included in bulk density,
which is the mass of the soil per unit volume. A number of variables affect it, such as soil
structure, organic matter content, compaction, and texture. Compaction of the soil, which
inhibits water penetration and root development, is indicated by a high bulk density.

- A Soil porosity is the fraction of soil that is really porous. Retention of water, aeration,
and root growth are all dependent on it. As bulk density rises, porosity reduces and vice
versa, since the two quantities are inversely connected.

4. Particle Density:

Particle density, excluding pore spaces, is the mass of soil particles per unit [Link] is
mostly unaffected by soil management measures and is instead determined by the soil's
mineral makeup.

Grasping these abstract ideas helps in making sense of soil samples' physical characteristics
and what those characteristics mean for the management of agriculture. Soil health and
production may be optimized by the analysis of bulk density, particle density, porosity,

117
color, and texture by scholars then farmers. This data then informs choices about irrigation,
fertilization, and crop selection.

To provide a more comprehensive understanding of the soil samples provided, let's

incorporate some formulae related to soil texture and soil porosity:

1. Soil Texture:

The texture of a particular soil is determined by the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. It has
a significant impact on a number of soil properties, including nutrient availability, drainage,
and water retention. Soil is often divided into several textural classes based on the
proportions of sand, silt, and clay.

The texture class of soil is determined by the proportions of clay, silt, and sand.

You get 100% by adding the percentages of sand, silt, and clay.

Soil samples may be categorized as sandy, loamy, or clayey according to the proportions of
sand, silt, and clay, as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil texture
triangle.

2. Soil Porosity

How easily water and air can pass through soil is measured by its porosity, which is the
amount for space between soil particles. Soil porosity influences root penetration, water
absorption, and soil aeration, all of which impact plant growth and nutrient uptake.

[Link] for calculating soil porosity:

Porosity (%) = [(Bulk Density - Particle Density) / Bulk Density] x 100%

Bulk Density: Mass of soil per unit volume (Mg m^-3)

Particle Density: Mass of soil particles per unit volume (Mg m^-3)

Soil with a higher porosity rating has more room for water to drain and roots to expand, two
qualities that are good for plant health.

Applying these calculations to the data presented for each soil sample allows for a more in-
depth investigation of the soil's texture as well as porosity, which may improve our
understanding of soil attributes and their potential suitability for agriculture.

118
3.14 Limitations of Study
In order to determine the nutrient content of a soil in relation to crop production, soil testing
is a procedure that is both dependable and founded on scientific principles. A database has
been created, however, for the purpose of calculating crucial levels of nutrients for
agronomic crop production and for estimating the rates of extra nutrients that are needed to
maximise yields. This database was created as a result of previous attention. The use of soil
testing as a sole application for the aim of determining the impact that the nutrient content of
a soil has on the quality of water is an unsuitable application. Some of the elements that may
influence the mobility and altering bioavailability of phosphorus include the type of soil, the
pH of the soil, the percentage of clay in the soil, the roughness of the soil, the amount of soil
residue cover, the intensity of tillage, the slope of the land, the quantity of vegetative cover,
and the distance to a sensitive water body. These variables have the potential to have a
significant influence on agricultural planning and productivity.

119
 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Yavatmal district in Maharashtra exhibits diverse soil types subjected to extensive
agricultural practices, featuring a variety of crops with distinct nutrient uptake
characteristics. Over an extended period, this agrarian activity has led to a nutritional
imbalance in essential elements such as micronutrients including iron, manganese, copper,
zinc, and nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium, and magnesium. These
nutrients only have a very limited range of availability in the soil, making it crucial to
understand their association with other soil properties through the concept of nutrient index.
The nutrient index provides a foundational understanding of available nutrients in the soil,
allowing for informed decisions in formulating precise fertilizer requirements tailored to
individual and area-specific needs under specific conditions. Despite the widespread
distribution of these soils in the Yavatmal district, there has been limited collective research
on their characteristics and nutritional status. The laboratory and statistical analysis data is
tabulated and graphical under the following heads.

4.1. Soil
4.1.1. Physical and chemical properties of soil from irrigated farmland.
Of the 150 soil samples we as a species collected, 75 were from irrigated farmlands and 50
were from non-irrigated farmlands. Soil samples were classified according to the 3 seasons
(winter, summer, and monsoon) from 75 distinct farmlands, several of which were irrigated
while other types of which were not. Table 1 shows the physical characteristics of the soil,
whereas Tables 4, 5, and 6 provide the chemical properties of the soil. Table 1 shows the
data on the physical properties of the soil. The findings show that the average particle
density of the 25 soil samples collected from irrigated farmland was 2.67 Mg m-3, with a
range of 2.40 to 2.80 Mg m-3. The highest particle density had been 2.80 Mg m-3 in sample
S16, whereas it was 2.40 Mg m-3 in sample S10. The average bulk density of the soil was
1.41 Mg m-3, ranging from 1.37 to 1.43 Mg m-3. The bulk values of these soils ranged
from 1.37 Mg m-3 for samples S12 and S2 to 1.43 Mg m-3 for the highest.

120
 Bulk Particle
Soil Sample Sand Silt Clay Texture Colour Density density Porosity
% % % (Mg (Mg (%)
m-3) m-3)

S1 16.10 28.20 55.60 Cl 10YR3/1 1.40 2.75 45.54

S2 24.60 23.80 51.60 Cl 10YR3/3 1.43 2.65 49.95
S3 26.10 23.10 50.70 Cl 10YR4/4 1.42 2.78 45.68
S4 23.60 22.30 54.10 Cl 10YR3/2 1.41 2.62 50.14
S5 25.80 24.10 50.10 Cl 10YR3/3 1.43 2.65 47.30
S6 19.90 27.80 52.40 Cl 10YR3/1 1.43 2.75 45.90
S7 23.30 23.90 52.80 SCl 10YR3/1 1.41 2.69 48.81
S8 21.50 24.20 54.30 Cl 10YR3/2 1.41 2.52 51.38
S9 15.80 26.10 58.10 Cl 10YR3/1 1.40 2.79 51.25
S10 25.10 23.20 51.70 SCl 10YR3/3 1.41 2.40 61.50
S11 16.80 29.80 53.40 Cl 10YR3/1 1.38 2.62 50.71
S12 19.90 23.10 57.00 Cl 10YR3/1 1.37 2.64 46.34
S13 19.80 28.00 52.20 Cl 10YR4/1 1.39 2.65 48.81
S14 13.10 28.60 58.30 Cl 10YR3/1 1.34 2.59 51.50
S15 25.20 26.80 48.00 Sl 10YR5/1 1.43 2.83 54.60
S16 23.80 24.90 51.30 SCl 10YR3/1 1.42 2.80 52.57
S17 19.90 28.00 52.10 Cl 10YR3/1 1.39 2.78 45.04
S18 21.50 23.20 55.30 Cl 10YR3/3 1.41 2.69 49.58
S19 15.80 26.10 58.10 Cl 10YR3/1 1.40 2.79 47.74
S20 19.80 28.00 52.20 Cl 10YR3/2 1.39 2.61 50.72
S21 23.80 24.90 51.30 Cl 10YR3/1 1.42 2.53 50.38
S22 21.50 24.20 54.30 Cl 10YR3/1 1.41 2.60 51.31
S23 24.60 23.80 51.60 Cl 10YR3/1 1.43 2.62 47.47
S24 25.20 26.80 48.00 Sl 10YR4/4 1.43 2.69 49.19
S25 23.30 23.90 52.80 Cl 10YR3/2 1.41 2.60 49.00

121
The table outlines the physical properties of 25 soil samples collected from irrigated
farmland, each identified as S1 to S25. These properties include the percentage composition
of sand, silt, and clay, determining the soil texture, which ranges from Clay (Cl) to Sandy
Clay (SCl) and Silty Clay (Sl). The Munsell color notation indicates the soil color, with
variations such as 10YR3/1. Bulk density, representing soil mass per unit volume, falls
between 1.34 and 1.43 Mg m^-3, while particle density ranges from 2.40 to 2.83 Mg m^-3.
Porosity, reflecting the percentage of pore space within the soil, spans from 45.04% to
61.50%. Noteworthy trends include varying soil textures, colors, and porosities among the
samples. Some samples exhibit higher porosity (e.g., S10, S24), suggesting potentially
improved water retention, while differences in bulk density indicate variations in soil
compaction. These diverse characteristics underscore the need for nuanced agricultural
practices, as soil properties directly influence water retention, drainage, and nutrient
availability, crucial factors for successful crop cultivation on irrigated farmland.

70

60

50
Sand%
40 Silt%
Clay %
Colour
30 Bulk Density (Mgm-3)
Particle density (Mgm-3)
Porosity (%)
20 Logarithmic (Porosity (%))

10

0
S2 S4 S6 S8 S10 S12 S14 S16 S18 S20 S22 S24

Physical Properties of irrigated farmland Soil.

Soil physicochemical data from the research area's irrigated agricultural is shown in Table 2.
In brief, the results showed that throughout the monsoon season, the pH averaged 7.45 and
varied from 7.09 to 7.94. Soil samples S10 and S22 had the lowest and highest pH levels,

122
respectively, at 7.09 and 7.94. In a monsoon season analysis of 25 soil samples, 15 (or 60%)
had a normal pH and 10 (or 40%) had an alkaline pH. Soils ranged from neutral to
somewhat acidic, according to the results. Soil electrical conductivity values were 0.26 dSm-
1 on average, with a range of 0.124 to 0.626 dSm-1. Soil sample S8 had the lowest electrical
conductivity (EC) (0.124), whereas soil sample S16 had the greatest (0.626 dSm-1) and soil
sample S12 had the second-highest (0.476 dSm-1). Consequently, the electrical conductivity
(EC) found in these soil samples fell within the typical guidelines. Table 2 shows that there
was relatively little organic carbon in the soil. During the monsoon season, the average
organic carbon content was 0.56%, with a range of 0.27% to 0.99%. Soil samples S11 and
S13 had the highest concentrations of organic carbon at 0.99 percent and 0.94%,
respectively, with soil sample S21 showing the lowest concentrations at 0.27%. During the
monsoon season, out of 25 soil samples tested, 48% had low levels, 28% had medium levels

Physical Prosperities of Non-Irrigated farmland Soil.

Bulk Particle
Density density
Soil Sand Silt Clay % Texture Colour Porosity
(Mg (Mg
Sample (%)
% %
m-3) m-3)

S1 21.10 23.90 55.00 Cl 10YR3/1 1.43 2.65 47.30

S2 25.30 19.70 55.00 Cl 10YR3/2 1.41 2.52 51.38

S3 26.40 21.90 51.70 Cl 10YR3/1 1.48 2.63 52.61

S4 14.80 32.40 52.80 Cl 10YR3/3 1.46 2.65 47.68

S5 25.90 19.70 54.40 Sl 10YR3/3 1.58 2.69 49.18

S6 17.20 33.20 49.60 Sl 10YR4/2 1.56 2.56 50.95

S7 21.40 27.80 50.80 SCl 10YR3/2 1.61 2.44 52.68

S8 17.10 32.80 50.10 Sl 10YR5/1 1.60 2.58 54.42

S9 34.30 17.80 47.90 SCl 10YR4/1 1.61 2.65 49.94

S10 24.90 24.10 51.00 SCl 10YR4/1 1.58 2.79 47.74

S11 23.80 23.80 52.40 Cl 10YR3/3 1.52 2.70 49.00

123
S12 20.40 28.60 51.00 SCl 10YR3/3 1.56 2.47 54.06

S13 19.10 31.10 49.80 Sl 10YR4/3 1.55 2.73 46.61

S14 15.90 26.90 57.20 Cl 10YR3/2 1.43 2.60 55.53

S15 19.40 26.80 53.80 Cl 10YR3/1 1.48 2.69 52.41

S16 16.10 31.10 52.80 Cl 10YR3/3 1.46 2.58 50.11

S17 15.90 26.80 57.30 Cl 10YR4/4 1.50 2.59 51.12

S18 20.00 24.90 55.10 Cl 10YR4/2 1.48 2.60 49.76

S19 19.70 28.30 52.00 Cl 10YR3/1 1.49 2.73 47.72

S20 19.30 25.30 55.40 Cl 10YR3/1 1.45 2.51 53.18

S21 21.60 28.40 50.00 Cl 10YR3/2 1.53 2.67 50.68

S22 28.70 19.70 51.60 Cl 10YR3/2 1.56 2.70 47.88

S23 24.80 22.10 53.10 SCl 10YR4/2 1.63 2.62 52.23

S24 20.20 25.10 54.70 Cl 10YR5/1 1.61 2.63 46.76

S25 19.80 32.00 48.20 Cl 10YR5/1 1.57 2.65 54.84

124
 Physical Prosperities of Non-Irrigated farmland Soil.

The physical properties of non-irrigated farmland soil from Table No. 7 reveal a diverse
range of characteristics across different soil samples. The soil texture varies among the
samples, with a combination of clay (Cl), silt (Sl), and sandy loam (SCl) textures. The
percentage composition of sand, silt, and clay in each sample contributes to the overall
texture, influencing the soil's water retention and drainage capabilities. The color of the soil
samples, described in terms of the Munsell color notation, exhibits variations such as
10YR3/1, 10YR3/2, and 10YR4/2, indicating different hues and intensities. The bulk
density, expressed in Megagrams per cubic meter (Mg m-3), provides insights into the soil's
compactness, with values ranging from 1.41 to 1.63. Lower bulk density values suggest
greater porosity and better aeration, crucial for root development and water movement
within the soil. Particle density, measured in Megagrams per cubic meter (Mg m-3), offers
information on the soil's mineral content and packing arrangement. The porosity percentage,
ranging from 46.61% to 55.53%, indicates the proportion of pore space within the soil,
influencing its ability to retain water and nutrients. These physical properties collectively
characterize the non-irrigated farmland soil, highlighting the importance of understanding its
composition for effective agricultural management and sustainable land use practices.

Physico-chemical properties of soils from irrigated farmland during the monsoon

Season

Sr. No. Sample No. pH EC (dSm⁻¹) CaCO₃ (%) OC (%) CEC (meq/100 gm)
125
 1 M-1 7.3 0.158 1.3 0.45 51.5
2 M-2 7.38 0.159 5.7 0.5 50
3 M-3 7.55 0.28 1.9 0.4 48.9
4 M-4 7.52 0.39 1.7 0.65 51.4
5 M-5 7.33 0.2 1.4 0.6 49
6 M-6 7.58 0.23 1.5 0.25 47.7
7 M-7 7.55 0.202 7.9 0.8 46.1
8 M-8 7.34 0.182 7.4 0.25 51.1
9 M-9 7.56 0.601 5.2 0.55 51.3
10 M-10 7.28 0.381 7.4 0.95 52.1
11 M-11 7.57 0.38 2.7 0.7 49.1
12 M-12 7.37 0.562 2.5 0.1 51.6
13 M-13 7.33 0.542 6 0.6 49.7
14 M-14 7.35 0.263 1.5 0.09 36.1
15 M-15 7.2 0.282 2 0.58 51.4
16 M-16 7.2 0.76 1.7 0.2 51.4
17 M-17 7.51 0.241 7.6 0.37 48.6
18 M-18 7.5 0.367 1.3 0.5 49
19 M-19 7.92 0.26 1.9 0.19 46.1
20 M-20 7.38 0.317 1.5 0.29 47.7
21 M-21 7.92 0.39 1.7 0.55 51.1
22 M-22 7.86 0.381 1.5 0.25 41.6
23 M-23 7.34 0.38 2.7 0.65 38.3
24 M-24 7.3 0.202 2.5 0.46 49.7
25 M-25 7.53 0.2 5.7 0.38 48.6

Physico-chemical properties of soils from irrigated farmland during the Summer

Season

126
Sr. Sample No. EC CaCO3 OC CEC

No. pH dSm-1 % % meq/100 gm

1 S-1 7.36 0.208 1.30 0.41 47.60

2 S-2 7.42 0.213 5.60 0.47 48.90

3 S-3 7.58 0.299 1.90 0.30 46.10

4 S-4 7.54 0.419 1.60 0.55 50.00

5 S-5 7.39 0.235 1.50 0.55 46.10

6 S-6 7.60 0.283 1.60 0.21 45.10

7 S-7 7.58 0.289 7.70 0.68 45.30

8 S-8 7.38 0.253 7.60 0.11 48.90

9 S-9 7.58 0.832 5.40 0.36 48.70

10 S-10 7.30 0.459 7.80 0.89 46.70

11 S-11 7.59 0.510 2.90 0.43 45.10

12 S-12 7.41 0.643 3.10 0.02 42.20

13 S-13 7.41 0.640 6.80 0.43 44.80

14 S-14 7.42 0.360 1.90 0.04 27.10

15 S-15 7.30 0.381 1.80 0.51 49.10

16 S-16 7.20 0.780 1.70 0.23 46.10

17 S-17 7.62 0.310 8.10 0.31 45.70

18 S-18 7.89 0.386 1.40 0.41 45.10

19 S-19 7.85 0.311 1.90 0.20 44.30

20 S-20 7.49 0.393 1.80 0.24 45.40

21 S-21 7.93 0.253 5.40 0.51 46.30

22 S-22 7.88 0.459 1.90 0.43 45.10

127
 23 S-23 7.94 0.643 8.10 0.68 35.10

24 S-24 7.30 0.780 1.40 0.47 36.10

25 S-25 7.57 0.614 2.90 0.55 39.80

Physico-chemical properties of soils from irrigated farmland during the Summer

Season

Table No.4.3 provides insights into the physico-chemical properties of so sampled from
irrigated farmland during the Summer Season, designated by sample numbers S-1 to S-25.
The pH values of the soil samples range from 7.20 to 7.94, indicating a slightly alkaline to
neutral pH range. Electrical conductivity (EC) values, representing soil salinity, vary
between 0.208 and 0.832 dSm^-1. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content, an indicator of soil
alkalinity, spans from 1.30% to 8.10%, showcasing the variability in soil composition.
Organic carbon (OC) content, vital for soil fertility, ranges from 0.02% to 0.89%,
emphasizing differences in organic matter content. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), an
essential factor for nutrient retention, ranges from 27.10 to 50.00 meq/100 gm. Notable
trends include variations in salinity and alkalinity, with samples such as S-9 and S-17
exhibiting higher values. Additionally, some samples demonstrate higher organic carbon
content and nutrient retention capacities, as seen in S-10 and S-15. These findings
underscore the diverse soil conditions during the Summer Season, highlighting the necessity

128
for tailored agricultural strategies to optimize crop growth and yield based on distinct soil
characteristics in irrigated farmland.

Out of 150 soil samples collected, 75 soils samples each were grouped under irrigated and
non-irrigated farmlands. Seventy-five Soil samples gathered from farmlands with and
without irrigation were divided into three seasons: monsoon, winter, and summer. Table 6
contains information on some of the soil's physical characteristics, while Tables 7, 8, 9, and
10 include information about some of its physico-chemical characteristics. Table 6 displays
the information on the physical characteristics of soil. According to the findings, the particle
density of the 25 soil samples taken from irrigated farmland varied from 2.44 to 2.79 mg m-
3, with a mean value of 2.67 mg m-3. Sample S7 had the lowest particle density (2.44 mg
m-3), whereas sample S10 had the greatest particle density (2.79 mg m-3).

The soil sample's bulk density had a mean value of 1.53 mg m-3 and varied from 1.41 to
1.61 mg m-3. Samples S2 and S9 revealed these soils' lowest and maximum bulk densities,
which were 1.52 and 1.61 mg/m3, respectively.

The porosity of this soil ranged from 46.76 to 55.53 percent, with a mean value of 50.63
percent. The lowest porocity was found in sample S24 whereas highest porosity was
recorded in sample S14.

Soil from the study area shows a dominant spectral wavelength of Munsell color, i.e., Hue
10 YR. Soil shows variation in value and chroma also. The value varied between 2-5, and
chroma, i.e., purity of colour, varied between 0-3. According to the Munsell color chart, soil
from irrigated farmland is black to very dark brown.

The data on soil texture indicate that all soil is clayey in texture. The sand percent ranged
from 14.8 to 34.3 percent, the silt percent ranged from 17.8 to 32.4 percent, and the clay
percent ranged from 47.90 to 57.80 percent in soil samples from non-irrigated farmlands.

The data on physios-chemical characteristics of soil is presented in Table 7. The results, in a

nutshell, indicated that the pH ranged from 6.94 -7.96, with an average value of 7.30 in
monsoon season. The soil sample S14 showed lowest pH 6.94, while the highest pH 7.96
was observed in soil sample S9 followed by pH 7.94 from soil sample S14.

4.1.2. Physical and physico-chemical properties of soil from no irrigated farm land.
Out of the 150 soil samples collected, 75 were classified as belonging to irrigated farmlands
and the other 75 as non-irrigated. The 75 soil samples were collected from irrigated and non-
129
irrigated farmlands throughout the monsoon, winter, and summer seasons. Data on specific
physico-chemical properties, whereas data on specific physical soil features are presented in
Table 6. Table 6 shows the data on the soil's physical properties. The results showed that the
average particle density of the 25 soil samples collected from irrigated farmland was 2.67
mg m-3, with a range of 2.44 to 2.79 mg m-3. The particle density ranged from 2.44 mg m -
3 in sample S7 to 2.79 mg m -3 in sample S10. The bulk density of the soil samples ranged
from 1.41 to 1.61 mg m-3, with an average value of 1.53 mg m-3. The soil's bulk density
ranged from 1.52 mg m-3 at its lowest point to 1.61 mg m-3 at its highest point, as seen in
samples S2 and S9. The porosity of this soil ranged from 46.76 to 55.53 percent, with an
average value of 50.63 percent. While sample S14 had the highest porosity readings, sample
S24 had the lowest. Out of the 150 soil samples collected, 75 were classified as belonging to
irrigated farmlands and the other 75 as non-irrigated. The 75 soil samples were collected
from irrigated and non-irrigated farmlands throughout the monsoon, winter, and summer
seasons. Data on specific physico-chemical properties, whereas data on specific physical
soil features are presented in Table 6.

Table 6 shows the data on the soil's physical properties. The results showed that the average
particle density of the 25 soil samples collected from irrigated farmland was 2.67 mg m-3,
with a range of 2.44 to 2.79 mg m-3. In terms of particle density, sample S7 had the lowest
value at 2.44 mg m-3, whereas sample S10 had the highest value at 2.79 mg m-3. The bulk
density of the soil samples ranged from 1.41 to 1.61 mg m-3, with an average value of 1.53
mg m-3. The soils' lowest and greatest bulk densities were 1.52 and 1.61 mg/m3,
respectively, as shown in Samples S2 and S9. The porosity of this soil ranged from 46.76 to
55.53 percent, with an average value of 50.63 percent. While sample S14 had the highest
porosity readings, sample S24 had the lowest.

Hue 10 YR is the major spectral wavelength of Munsell color in the soil samples taken from
the research site. Value and chroma may also vary in soil. Chroma, or color purity, ranged
from 0 to 3, and the value was anywhere from 2 to 5. The Munsell color chart indicates that
soil from irrigated farms ranges in color from black to a very dark brown. All soils are
clayey in texture, according to the data on soil texture. In soil samples taken from non-
irrigated farmlands, the percentages of sand, silt, and clay varied from 14.8% to 34.3%,
17.8% to 32.4%, and 47.90 to 57.80%, respectively.

The data on physioc-chemical characteristics of soil is presented in Table 7. The results in

nutshell indicated that the pH ranged from 6.94 -7.96 with an average value of 7.30 in
130
monsoon season. The soil sample S14 showed lowest pH 6.94, while the highest pH 7.96
was observed in soil sample S9 followed by pH 7.94 from soil sample S14.

Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during winter Season

Sr. Sample No.

No. pH EC CaCO3 OC CEC

dSm-1 % % meq/100 gm

1 S-1 7.35 0.463 4.60 0.85 49.20

2 S-2 7.44 0.226 1.80 0.55 49.10

3 S-3 7.66 0.133 1.60 0.26 42.10

4 S-4 7.67 0.230 1.60 0.36 49.30

5 S-5 7.29 0.467 1.70 0.42 50.10

6 S-6 7.20 0.380 1.60 0.49 51.10

7 S-7 7.18 0.296 1.90 0.36 50.20

8 S-8 7.56 0.234 1.90 0.30 53.10

9 S-9 7.96 0.146 1.70 0.24 48.90

10 S-10 7.03 0.300 1.60 0.39 48.00

11 S-11 7.18 0.226 1.90 0.42 47.10

12 S-12 7.03 0.380 1.10 0.36 50.90

13 S-13 7.35 0.234 1.80 0.24 49.90

14 S-14 6.94 0.146 1.70 0.55 53.10

15 S-15 7.29 0.133 1.90 0.26 53.00

16 S-16 7.20 0.467 1.60 0.42 56.80

17 S-17 7.20 0.296 1.70 0.49 51.40

18 S-18 7.67 0.234 1.60 0.30 51.30

131
 19 S-19 7.20 0.230 1.80 0.39 51.10

20 S-20 7.13 0.226 1.20 0.26 48.10

21 S-21 7.29 0.146 1.10 0.42 49.10

22 S-22 7.21 0.300 1.30 0.36 43.60

23 S-23 7.32 0.230 1.40 0.49 39.60

24 S-24 7.10 0.234 1.90 0.30 40.20

25 S-25 7.16 0.226 1.80 0.55 44.40

Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Monsoon

Season
Of the 25 soil samples taken during the monsoon, 19 (or 76% of the total) had a normal pH
and 6 (24% of the total) were determined to be somewhat acidic. And so it was that the soils
ranged from neutral to slightly acidic.

The third soil sample had the lowest electrical conductivity (0.133 dSm-1). In contrast, soil
sample S16 had the greatest electrical conductivity (0.467 dSm-1), with S1 coming in
second at 0.463 dSm-1. As a result, these soils' EC values were within the typical range.
132
According to Table 8, which details the organic carbon content, the soils ranged from very
low to extremely rich. A mean of 0.40 percent organic carbon was found during the
monsoon, with a range of 0.24% to 0.85% otherwise. Soil sample S9 had the lowest organic
carbon content at 0.24%, while soil sample S1 had the highest at 0.85% and soil sample S25
had the second-highest at 0.55%.

A total of 25 soil samples were collected during the monsoon season; of these, 21 (or 84%
of the total) had low organic carbon levels, 3 (12%) had medium levels, and 1 4% had high
levels. Table 8shows that throughout the monsoon, the average concentration of calcium
carbonate was 1.75 percent, while the range was 1.60 to 4.60 percent. Soil S1 had the
highest calcium carbonate concentration at 4.60 percent, soil S3 had the lowest at 1.60%,
and soil S7 had the third-highest at 1.90%. Soil, therefore, is not calcareous.

Based on the physico-chemical parameters of the soils classified as inception, Table 8

showed that, of the 25 soil samples, 18 had neutral reactions (pH 6.5 - 7.5) and 7 had
alkaline reactions (pH 7.5 - 8.9). Soil sample S12 had the lowest pH (7.11), while soil
sample S9 had the highest pH (7.90), followed by soil sample S18 (7.68). Twenty-eight of
the 25 soil samples (72%) showed a neutral response, whereas the remaining 28% showed
an alkaline reaction.

Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during winter Season

Sr. CEC

No. Samp. No. pH EC CaCO3 OC meq/100 gm

dSm-1 % %

1 S-1 7.51 0.561 4.90 0.61 49.00

2 S-2 7.45 0.331 1.80 0.41 47.80

3 S-3 7.71 0.286 1.90 0.18 40.00

4 S-4 7.67 0.361 1.90 0.22 48.10

5 S-5 7.41 0.563 1.60 0.35 46.80

6 S-6 7.22 0.467 1.70 0.30 46.50

7 S-7 7.31 0.381 1.90 0.31 46.90

133
8 S-8 7.57 0.281 1.10 0.29 46.10

9 S-9 7.90 0.197 1.80 0.19 45.00

10 S-10 7.18 0.461 1.60 0.20 45.70

11 S-11 7.21 0.361 1.20 0.35 48.10

12 S-12 7.11 0.467 1.90 0.31 46.80

13 S-13 7.21 0.281 1.40 0.30 46.90

14 S-14 7.15 0.286 1.50 0.18 49.00

15 S-15 7.31 0.461 1.90 0.22 54.10

16 S-16 7.23 0.331 1.80 0.41 49.00

17 S-17 7.51 0.381 1.70 0.29 49.30

18 S-18 7.68 0.470 1.20 0.20 49.00

19 S-19 7.20 0.380 1.10 0.31 46.10

20 S-20 7.41 0.291 1.90 0.22 46.80

21 S-21 7.21 0.197 1.30 0.42 43.50

22 S-22 7.12 0.563 1.80 0.58 39.10

23 S-23 7.34 0.286 1.10 0.18 40.00

24 S-24 7.22 0.361 1.90 0.20 39.20

25 S-25 7.31 0.331 1.90 0.18 40.10

134
 Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Winter
Season

The electrical conductivity of these soils throughout the winter varied from 0.197 to 0.563
dSm-1, with an average value of 0.37 dSm-1. The electric conductivity of soil samples was
lowest in soil S9 (0.197 dSm-1), greatest in soil sample S5 (0.563 dSm-1), and then lowest
in soil sample S1 (0.56 dSm-1). Soil ECs were typical across the board over the winter. The
organic carbon content of soils categorized as winter varied between 18.1% and 0.61%, with
an average of 0.30%. The organic carbon concentration was 0.18% in soil S3, 0.61% in soil
S1, and 0.58% in soil S22, in that order. The organic carbon content was low in 92% of the
soil samples and medium in 8% of the other samples. The soil's CaCO3 level fluctuated
between 1.20 and 4.90 percent, averaging 1.75 percent, during the winter. S11 has the dirt's
lowest CaCO3 concentration of 1.20%. While S1 had the greatest CaCO3 concentration
(4.90%), followed by S7 with 1.90%. It was determined from the data that none of the soil
samples were calcareous.

Displays the physicochemical characteristics of summer soils derived from non-irrigated

agricultural land. The findings showed that the soil samples had pH values ranging from
7.10 to 7.89, with an average of 7.59. Soil sample S19 had the lowest pH (7.10), whereas
soil samples S1 and S10 had the highest pH (7.89 and 7.88, respectively). Table 9 displays

135
the results, which show that out of 25 samples, 28% had a neutral response and 72% had an
alkaline one. In addition, the results showed that the soil's electrical conductivity varied
between 0.219 and 0.631 dSm-1, with an average value of 0.45 dSm-1. With a salt content
of 0.219 dSm-1, soil S9 had the lowest electrical conductivity (EC), whereas soil S5 had the
highest (0.631 dSm-1), and soil S1 had the lowest (0.614 dSm-1). The soils have an average
amount of salt.

Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Summer

Season

CEC

Sr. Samp. No. pH EC CaCO3 OC meq/100 gm

No. dSm-1 % %

1 S-1 7.89 0.614 5.60 0.51 47.10

2 S-2 7.51 0.441 1.90 0.34 41.70

3 S-3 7.60 0.344 1.30 0.11 41.30

4 S-4 7.67 0.441 1.10 0.19 48.10

5 S-5 7.89 0.631 1.30 0.23 51.10

6 S-6 7.55 0.594 1.90 0.22 50.20

7 S-7 7.81 0.415 1.80 0.24 5.00

8 S-8 7.56 0.391 1.60 0.21 50.10

9 S-9 7.68 0.219 1.70 0.13 48.10

10 S-10 7.88 0.597 1.90 0.13 43.80

11 S-11 7.31 0.344 1.10 0.19 46.90

12 S-12 7.55 0.441 1.90 0.22 49.90

13 S-13 7.68 0.631 1.30 0.21 49.10

14 S-14 7.89 0.415 1.90 0.13 48.70

15 S-15 7.31 0.219 1.80 0.11 50.10

136
 16 S-16 7.51 0.391 1.10 0.51 60.10

17 S-17 7.20 0.596 1.70 0.34 48.90

18 S-18 7.41 0.441 1.30 0.23 47.70

19 S-19 7.10 0.614 1.40 0.24 46.70

20 S-20 7.30 0.310 1.60 0.21 45.70

21 S-21 7.81 0.381 1.50 0.31 48.70

22 S-22 7.56 0.360 1.90 0.20 43.10

23 S-23 7.68 0.459 1.70 0.11 37.60

24 S-24 7.88 0.283 1.40 0.21 38.30

25 S-25 7.42 0.594 1.80 0.41 42.10

Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Summer

Season

Nineteen of the twenty-five soil samples taken during the monsoon had normal pH levels,
six An alkaline reaction was seen in 25% of the soil samples. Soil pH was therefore all over

137
the map, from neutral to slightly acidic. Soil electrical conductivity ranged from 0.133 to
0.467 dSm-1, with an average value of 0.26 dSm-1. The lowest electrical conductivity (EC)
of 0.133 dSm-1 was found in soil sample S3. Conversely, the soil sample with the greatest
electrical conductivity (EC) was S16 (0.467 dSm-1), followed by S1 (0.463 dSm-1). As a
result, these soils' EC fell within the expected range, while their organic carbon contents
ranged widely, from very low to extremely high. Regarding the amount of organic carbon,
soil sample S9 ranked worst with 0.24%, whereas soil sample S1 had the most with 0.85%,
and soil sample S25 came in second with 0.55%. In a monsoon survey of 25 soil samples
taken from areas that were not irrigated, 21 samples (84%) had low organic carbon, 3
samples (12%) had medium organic carbon, and 1 sample (4%) had high organic carbon, the
average concentration of calcium carbonate was 1.75 percent, while the range was 1.60 to
4.60 percent. Of the soil samples tested, S3 had the lowest calcium carbonate level at 1.60%,
while S1 had the highest at 4.60% and S7 had the second-highest at 1.90%.

Physico-chemical properties of soils from non-irrigated farmland during monsoon

Season

Sr. Sample No. CEC

No. pH EC CaCO3 OC meq/100 gm

dSm-1 % %

1 S-1 7.31 0.157 1.20 0.47 51.70

2 S-2 7.39 0.156 5.60 0.49 49.80

3 S-3 7.56 0.281 1.80 0.39 48.70

4 S-4 7.53 0.391 1.60 0.66 51.50

5 S-5 7.34 0.201 1.30 0.61 49.10

6 S-6 7.59 0.233 1.40 0.26 47.80

7 S-7 7.56 0.203 7.80 0.81 46.20

8 S-8 7.35 0.183 7.30 0.26 51.00

9 S-9 7.57 0.602 5.10 0.56 51.40

138
10 S-10 7.29 0.382 7.30 1.00 52.00

11 S-11 7.58 0.381 2.60 0.71 49.00

12 S-12 7.38 0.563 2.40 0.11 51.70

13 S-13 7.34 0.543 5.90 0.61 49.80

14 S-14 7.36 0.264 1.40 0.10 36.20

15 S-15 7.21 0.283 1.90 0.59 51.50

16 S-16 7.21 0.761 1.60 0.21 51.50

17 S-17 7.52 0.242 7.50 0.38 48.70

18 S-18 7.51 0.368 1.20 0.51 49.10

19 S-19 7.93 0.261 1.80 0.20 46.20

20 S-20 7.39 0.318 1.40 0.30 47.80

21 S-21 7.93 0.391 1.60 0.56 51.00

22 S-22 7.87 0.382 1.40 0.26 41.70

23 S-23 7.35 0.381 2.60 0.66 38.40

24 S-24 7.31 0.203 2.40 0.47 49.80

25 S-25 7.54 0.201 5.60 0.39 48.70

139
Physico-chemical properties of soils from irrigated farmland during the Winter Season

Table No.4.2 presents the physico-chemical properties of soils obtained from irrigated
farmland during the Winter Season, with each soil sample denoted by the sample numbers
S-1 to S-25. The pH values of the soil samples range from 7.21 to 7.93, indicating a slightly
alkaline to neutral soil environment. Electrical conductivity (EC) values, reflecting soil
salinity, vary between 0.156 and 0.761 dSm^ -1. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content, an
indicator of soil alkalinity, spans from 1.20% to 7.80%, demonstrating variations in soil
composition. Organic carbon (OC) content, crucial for soil fertility, ranges from 0.10% to
1.00%, showcasing differences in the organic materials of the soil. Capacity for Cation
Exchange (CEC), an essential parameter for nutrient retention, ranges from 36.20 to 52.00
meq/100 gm. The data reveals diverse soil conditions, with some samples exhibiting higher
salinity and alkalinity (e.g., S-16, S-21) while others demonstrate higher organic carbon and
nutrient retention capacities (e.g., S-10, S-15). These variations highlight the complexity of
soils in irrigated farmland during the Winter, emphasizing the need for tailored agricultural
practices to optimize crop growth and yield in response to distinct soil characteristics.

140
4.1.3 Status of available primary macronutrient (N, P and K) in soils of non-irrigated
farmlands.
With a mean of 97.90 kg/ha, the accessible nitrogen (N) content in monsoon-season soils
varied from 58.50 to 133.02 kg/ha, depending on the N, P, and K status. The N content of
samples S1 and S2 was the greatest at 133.02 kg/ha and 124.26 kg/ha, respectively, while
that of sample S20 was the lowest at 58.50 kg/ha. The available nitrogen amounts in all 25
soil samples were low (<250 kg/ha).

The available phosphorus (P) levels ranged from 10.2 to 30.6 kg/ha, with an average of
17.22 kg/ha. Soil sample S9 had the lowest P concentration at 10.20 kg/ha, while S16 had
the highest at 30.6 kg/ha, followed by S15 with 27.21 kg/ha. Out of the 25 samples, none
had low phosphorus content (<10 kg/ha), 22 had medium phosphorus levels (10-25 kg/ha),
and 3 had high phosphorus levels (>25 kg/ha).

For potassium (K), the available content ranged from 214.30 to 493.41 kg/ha, with a mean
value of 307.58 kg/ha. Soil sample S18 had the lowest available K, while S11 had the
highest. Among the 25 samples, none had available potassium levels below 150 kg/ha, 13
had levels between 150 and 300 kg/ha, and 12 had levels above 300 kg/ha.

Status of available N, P & K of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Monsoon

Season

Sr. Available nutrient (kg ha-1)

No. Sample No. N P2O5 K2O

1 S-1 133.02 27.21 450.31

2 S-2 124.26 24.94 493.41

3 S-3 58.50 30.60 414.33

4 S-4 80.28 23.29 493.41

5 S-5 101.65 12.77 331.33

6 S-6 110.38 16.27 187.73

7 S-7 102.37 10.82 193.04

141
8 S-8 103.34 11.23 202.71

9 S-9 98.64 10.20 214.3

10 S-10 101.35 10.75 230.49

11 S-11 58.50 23.29 493.41

12 S-12 102.37 16.27 331.33

13 S-13 101.65 11.23 450.31

14 S-14 98.64 10.75 493.41

15 S-15 124.26 27.21 187.73

16 S-16 103.34 30.60 202.71

17 S-17 101.65 12.77 230.49

18 S-18 101.35 10.82 214.3

19 S-19 80.28 10.20 331.33

20 S-20 58.50 10.75 414.33

21 S-21 58.64 12.77 202.71

22 S-22 124.26 11.23 193.04

23 S-23 101.65 16.27 331.33

24 S-24 110.38 23.29 214.3

25 S-25 103.34 24.94 187.73

142
 Status of available N, P & K of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Monsoon
Season

The quantity of nitrogen that was accessible was lowest in soil sample S3 (46.37 kg ha-1),
highest in soil sample S1 (123.40 kg ha-1), and second highest in soil sample S2 (119.20 kg
ha-1). The amounts of available nitrogen were low in all 25 soil samples taken in the winter.
Between 8.02 and 26.82 kg ha-1 of accessible phosphorus was measured over the winter,
with an average value of 14.38 kg ha-1. The quantity of available phosphorus was highest in
soil sample S3 (26.82 kg ha-1), next in soil sample S18 (22.26 kg ha-1), and lowest in soil
sample S10 (8.02 kg ha-1). From the 25 soil samples taken in the winter, 9 had a low P
concentration, 15 had a medium P value, and 1 had a high P content. Solvents classified as
winter in the study region had an accessible potassium concentration ranging from 177.15
kg ha-1 to 980.88 kg ha-1, with an average value of 324.21 kg ha-1. The available potassium
was lowest in soil sample S6 at 177.15 kg ha-1 and highest in soil sample S10 at 980.88 kg
ha-1, with soil samples S16 and S10 following closely behind at 467.43 kg ha-1,
respectively. There was no soil sample with low available K, 52 samples with medium
available K, and 48 samples with high available K among the 25 taken throughout the
winter.

143
Status of available N, P and K of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Winter
Season.

Sr. Available nutrient (kg ha-1)

No. Sample No. N P2O5 K2O

1 S-1 123.40 20.40 434.85

2 S-2 119.20 21.77 467.43

3 S-3 46.37 26.82 410.44

4 S-4 67.28 22.26 467.43

5 S-5 98.02 10.25 314.36

6 S-6 99.70 15.29 177.15

7 S-7 93.40 8.98 182.75

8 S-8 87.60 8.78 194.4

9 S-9 91.00 8.27 214.63

10 S-10 89.02 8.02 980.88

11 S-11 98.02 10.25 314.36

12 S-12 87.60 15.29 177.15

13 S-13 89.02 8.78 194.4

14 S-14 91.00 8.27 182.75

15 S-15 93.40 8.02 410.44

16 S-16 67.28 8.98 467.43

17 S-17 46.37 8.02 434.85

18 S-18 89.02 22.26 214.63

19 S-19 91.00 21.77 194.4

20 S-20 99.70 20.40 218.12

144
 21 S-21 98.02 15.29 467.43

22 S-22 87.60 10.25 182.75

23 S-23 91.00 21.77 214.63

24 S-24 67.28 20.40 177.15

25 S-25 99.70 8.98 410.44

Status of available N, P and K of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Winter

Season .
The quantity of nitrogen that was accessible was lowest in soil S3 (40.19 kg ha-1), highest in
soil S1 (115.18 kg ha-1), and second highest in soil S2 (93.13 kg ha-1). In addition, all 25
soil samples included in the summer group were found to be poor in organic matter,
according to the data. With a range of 4.81 to 23.38 kg ha-1, the average available P content
of these soils was 12.13 kg ha-1. Soil sample S18 had the highest amount of accessible P at
23.38 kg ha-1, ahead of sample S11 at 18.36 kg ha-1

Nearly half (48%) of the 25 soil samples analyzed in the summertime fall into the low
accessible P concentration category, whereas half (52%) fall into the medium available P
category. The accessible potassium content in the summer soils ranged from 182.80 to
145
444.28 available potassium contents. Not a single one of the twenty-five soil samples taken
in the summer fell into the low category. A high accessible K level was found in 44% of the
soil samples, whereas a medium quantity was found in 56%.

The soils in the study had no accessible nitrogen, no medium nitrogen, and no high nitrogen
content, according to Table 12's categorization of the research area's available phosphorus
and potassium content. Soil samples from the research showed low levels of available
nitrogen.

Status of available N,& P K of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Summer

Season

Available nutrient (kg ha-1)

Sr. Sample No. N P2O5 K2O

No.

1 S-1 115.18 15.81 410.42

2 S-2 93.13 16.50 444.28

3 S-3 40.19 23.38 399.58

4 S-4 57.28 18.36 444.28

5 S-5 83.13 9.65 307.88

6 S-6 79.15 13.98 182.8

7 S-7 75.16 6.72 183.52

8 S-8 69.52 6.42 187.74

9 S-9 72.01 5.96 206.42

10 S-10 69.00 4.81 195.09

11 S-11 93.13 18.36 206.42

12 S-12 57.28 13.98 182.8

13 S-13 40.19 6.72 399.7

146
14 S-14 79.15 6.42 410.42

15 S-15 75.16 5.96 307.88

16 S-16 69.52 4.81 183.52

17 S-17 72.08 9.65 195.09

18 S-18 69.00 23.38 204.85

19 S-19 115.18 16.50 444.28

20 S-20 57.28 15.81 315.47

21 S-21 83.13 23.38 410.42

22 S-22 79.15 13.98 182.8

23 S-23 69.52 6.72 183.52

24 S-24 57.28 6.42 206.42

25 S-25 75.16 9.65 315.47

147
 Status of available N,& P K of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Summer
Season
To ascertain how much potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen were present in the soils of
non-irrigated agriculture throughout the summer, 25 sites (S-1 to S-25) were sampled. The
findings show that the amounts of nutrients varied greatly across the samples. The nitrogen
concentration varied between 40.19 and 115.18 kg/ha, with the lowest amount found in S-3
and the greatest level in S-1. S-10 showed the lowest concentration of phosphorus (P2O5)
and S-18 showed the highest concentration; the amounts ranged from 4.81 to 23.38 kg/ha. S-
6 had the lowest potassium concentration (K2O) and S-2 had the highest, with a range of
182.8 to 444.28 kg/ha. Samples S-2, S-4, S-19, and S-21 showed increased amounts of all
three nutrients, suggesting a soil profile that may be rich. On the other hand, S-3, S-13, and
S-10 showed lower concentrations, indicating that dietary supplements may be necessary.
All things considered, our findings highlight the fact that summertime nutrient distribution
in non-irrigated agriculture is quite variable. In order to maximize crop development and
production across various geographical areas, fertilization techniques should be developed
with these variances in mind. Sustainable and efficient agricultural practices may also
necessitate targeted soil amendments to fix particular nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium
deficiencies. Soil nutrient levels should be monitored regularly and adjusted accordingly to
help with informed decision-making for better crop management.

148
4.1.4 Status of available primary macronutrient (N, P and K) in soils of irrigated
farmlands.
a) Monsoon season (Irrigated):

The soils tested during the monsoon season had a range of 33.40 to 201.30 kg ha-1 of
accessible N, with an average of 121.52 kg ha-1 of P and K status and classification. Soils
S9 had the highest nitrogen concentration at 171.00 kg ha-1, whereas soils S12 had the
lowest at 37.40 kg ha-1. All 25 soil samples had a low accessible nitrogen content (< 250 kg
ha-1).

Soil samples S13 and S16 had the highest P contents (57.21 and 34.43 kg ha-1,
respectively), whereas samples S14 and S13 had the lowest concentrations (8.66 and 8.66 kg
ha-1, respectively).

Status of available N, P & K of soils from irrigated farmland during Monsoon Season

Sr. Available nutrient (kg ha-1)

No. Sample No. N P2O5 K2O

1 S-1 110.65 22.87 296.37

2 S-2 105.60 27.00 612.98

3 S-3 100.80 31.13 353.19

4 S-4 149.50 27.73 348.74

5 S-5 146.25 15.77 551.84

6 S-6 81.00 19.16 667.24

7 S-7 140.32 22.58 224.15

8 S-8 76.50 17.30 473.84

9 S-9 171.00 16.50 466.02

10 S-10 201.30 15.68 1058.1

11 S-11 170.65 16.50 770.34

149
 12 S-12 31.50 20.83 659.82

13 S-13 171.00 57.21 632.38

14 S-14 37.40 8.66 530.66

15 S-15 165.32 11.21 487.18

16 S-16 60.75 34.43 680.2

17 S-17 90.40 17.72 583.03

18 S-18 105.40 14.58 768.86

19 S-19 69.65 15.04 400.96

20 S-20 100.32 21.25 404.74

21 S-21 171.00 17.30 466.02

22 S-22 170.65 19.16 353.19

23 S-23 165.32 16.59 348.74

24 S-24 105.40 20.83 296.37

25 S-25 140.32 21.25 400.96

Out of the 25 soil samples taken during the monsoon season from the research region, 1 had
a low P concentration (<10 kg ha-1), 19 had a medium P content (10-25 kg ha-1), and 5 had
a high P content (>25 kg ha-1).

150
 Status of available N, P & K of soils from irrigated farmland during Monsoon Season
The average potassium (K) level was 513.44 kg/ha, ranging from 224.15 to 1058.10 kg/ha.
Soil sample S7 had the lowest potassium availability, whereas soil sample S10 demonstrated
the highest.

No soil sample collected during the monsoon season had an accessible potassium value
below 150 kg ha-1; three samples ranged from 150 to 300 kg ha-1, while twenty-two
samples above 300 kg ha-1.

A mean of 104.32 kg ha-1 of accessible nitrogen was found among the 25 soil samples
categorized as winter. The range of values was from 35.00 to 189.21 kg ha-1. Soil samples
S10 and S11 had the greatest and lowest levels of accessible nitrogen, respectively, at
189.21 and 161.20 kg ha-1. Soil samples S14 had the lowest level of available nitrogen, at
35.00 kg ha-1.

All 25 soil samples collected over the winter were found to have low levels of accessible
nitrogen.

Between 6.92 to 45.61 kg ha-1 of accessible phosphorus was measured in winterSoil

samples S15 and S13 had the lowest and greatest available phosphorus levels, respectively,
at 6.92 and 45.61 kg ha-1, with S4 coming in second at 26.36 kg ha-1.

151
One sample had a low P concentration, twenty-one samples were medium, and three
samples had a high P content, according to the winter soil sample categorization.

Soils in the winter-related research region had an average accessible potassium level of
444.95 Soil sample S7 had the least amount of accessible K at 206.16 kg ha-1, whereas soil
sample S18 had the most at 725.61 kg ha-1, and soil sample S11 had the most at 712.16 kg
ha-1

Status of available N, P & K of soils from irrigated farmland during Winter Season

Sr. Available nutrient (kg ha-1)

No. Sample No. N P2O5 K2O

1 S-1 105.37 19.94 285.46

2 S-2 101.00 24.07 582.46

3 S-3 89.23 25.92 337.41

4 S-4 135.50 26.36 303.06

5 S-5 1.22.31 15.15 375.8

6 S-6 71.02 18.36 538.51

7 S-7 136.30 19.62 206.16

8 S-8 59.51 14.51 399.25

9 S-9 157.30 13.52 421.64

10 S-10 189.21 13.45 582.46

11 S-11 161.20 15.15 712.16

12 S-12 40.20 15.79 648.78

13 S-13 189.21 45.61 538.51

14 S-14 35.00 10.54 467.31

15 S-15 160.30 6.92 417.92

152
 16 S-16 57.71 19.62 581.2

17 S-17 81.72 15.61 469.12

18 S-18 97.32 11.69 725.61

19 S-19 58.61 12.61 362.84

20 S-20 96.30 19.94 348.47

21 S-21 143.40 18.36 285.46

22 S-22 119.20 14.51 399.25

23 S-23 46.37 24.07 375.8

24 S-24 67.28 18.36 337.41

25 S-25 105.37 15.79 421.64

Out of the 25 soil samples of winter season under the categorisation, (0%) soil sample were
low in available K, (12%) soil sample were medium and (88%) soil samples were high in
available K.

153
 Status of available N, P & K of soils from irrigated farmland during Winter Season
Soil S14 had the lowest accessible nitrogen at 33.10 kg ha-1, while soil S10 had 170.50 kg
ha-1, and soil S13 had the most at 218.59 kg ha-1. During the summer, the nitrogen content
in the soil group ranged from 33.10 to 170.50 kg ha-1, with an average of 98.46 kg ha-1.

Additionally, the data showed that out of the 25 soil samples included in the summer
category, every single one of them was rated as poor.

On average, these soils had a P availability of 24.76 kg ha-1, with a range of 6.67 to 36.97
kg ha-1. In terms of accessible P, soil sample S15 had the lowest concentration (6.67 g kg-
1), whereas samples S13 and S16 had the greatest concentrations (36.97 kg ha-1) and 32.15
kg ha-1, respectively.

In terms of accessible P content, sixteen percent of the soil samples from the summer study
region were low, seventy-six percent were medium, and eight percent were high.

Soils categorised as summer had a potassium concentration between 204.85 and 1036.5 kg
ha-1, with a mean of 469.50 kg ha-1. The available potassium content was minimal in soil
sample S7, at 204.85 kg ha-1, and maximal in soil sample S13, at 1036.5 kg ha-1, with S10
subsequently at 830.38 kg ha-1.

No soil sample from the 25 collected throughout the summer was deemed to have a low
Among the soil samples tested, 16% had a medium available K level and 84% had a high
one.

154
The accessible categories of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for the study area. The
soils in the research region exhibited 0% accessible nitrogen, 0% medium nitrogen, and 0%
high nitrogen. As a result, the soil in the study region had a restricted quantity of available
nitrogen.

Status of available N, P & K of soils from irrigated farmland during Summer Season

Available nutrient (kg ha-1)

Sr.
Samp. No. N P2O5 K2O
No.

1 S-1 97.63 15.84 277.27

2 S-2 94.53 22.26 482.16

3 S-3 74.13 21.32 313.43

4 S-4 110.30 20.88 290.77

5 S-5 108.53 12.61 350.17

6 S-6 63.65 13.98 530.56

7 S-7 116.17 15.84 204.85

8 S-8 41.74 12.72 349.57

9 S-9 123.19 11.23 377.35

10 S-10 170.50 9.47 830.38

11 S-11 133.30 12.63 674.92

12 S-12 38.50 12.86 651.78

13 S-13 166.13 36.97 1036.5

14 S-14 33.10 9.19 441.75

15 S-15 136.30 6.67 435.01

16 S-16 51.00 32.15 532.13

155
 17 S-17 68.80 12.17 434.04

18 S-18 91.23 10.61 676.49

19 S-19 51.03 9.19 350.9

20 S-20 81.15 15.59 315.47

21 S-21 166.13 13.98 651.78

22 S-22 123.19 12.72 441.75

23 S-23 116.17 21.04 434.04

24 S-24 136.30 12.17 377.35

25 S-25 68.80 15.59 277.27

Status of available N, P & K of soils from irrigated farmland during Summer Season

3. Status of available primary macronutrient (N, P and K) in soils of non-irrigated

farmlands.

156
Based on the data from the monsoon season soils and their classification according to N, P,
and K status we can see that the available N content varied between 58.50 and 133.02. Soils
S20 had the lowest nitrogen concentration (58.50 kg ha-1), whereas soils S1 and S2 had the
greatest nitrogen content (133.02 kg ha-1) and 124.26 kg ha-1, respectively. The available
nitrogen concentration was low (< 250 kg ha-1) in all 25 soil samples.

Soil phosphorus availability ranged from 10.2 to 30.6 kg ha-1, with 17.22 kg ha-1 being the
average. Soil samples S9 and S16 had the lowest and highest P contents, respectively, at
10.20 and 30.6%, with S15 and S16 recording the next lowest and 27.21%, respectively, at
27.21%.

Out of the 25 soil samples taken during the monsoon season for the research, none had a low
P level (<10 kg ha-1), 22 had a medium P content (10-25 kg ha-1), and 3 had a high P
content (>25 kg ha-1).

The available K values averaged 307.58 kg ha-1 and ranged from 214.30 to 493.41 kg ha-1.
Soil sample S11 had the greatest amount of accessible potassium, while soil sample S18 had
the least.

No soil samples during the monsoon season had a low accessible potassium level (< 150 kg
ha-1), Thirteen samples had a potassium level that was medium (150–300 kg ha-1), whereas
twelve samples had a potassium value that was high (> 300 kg ha-1).

4.1.5 Status of available secondary macronutrients (S, Ca & Mg) in soils of irrigated
farmland
Two sites showed low availability of accessible sulphur that make up the soils, eighteen
maintained medium availability, and five had excellent availability across the research
region. Soils in the study area had exchangeable calcium values ranging from 17.90 to
49.00 Cmol(P+) kg-1 and magnesium concentrations from 6.90 to 19.80 Cmol(P+) kg-1.
Every one of the 25 soil samples had considerable amounts of magnesium and calcium that
could be exchanged.

In regards to status accessible S, refundable Ca++, and Mg++, the soil information related to
the study area is provided by the 19 and the 22. During the monsoon season, the study area's
soil accessible sulphur content ranged from 3.42 to 14.55 mg kg-1, without an average value
of 8.09 mg kg-1. Soils S16 and S13 had the highest amounts of accessible S (12.55 mg kg-
1), though soils S15 had the lowest amounts (3.42 mg kg-1).

157
Twenty percent of the 25 soil samples taken during the monsoon had soils with a substantial
sulphur content, 72 percent had soils with a medium concentration, but 8 percent had soils
with less accessible sulphur. This soil has an average exchangeable Ca++ content of 31.00
Cmol(P+) kg-1, ranging from 17.90 to 49.00 Cmol(P+) kg-1. The soils with the highest
amounts of exchangeable Ca++ were S3 and S5, with 49.00 and 48.50 Cmol(P+) kg-1, for
example, whereas the soils with the lowest levels were S19, with 17.90 Cmol(P+) kg-1.

The 25 soil samples that were categorised as monsoon all had high amounts of exchangeable
Ca++. A range of 6.90 to 19.80 Cmol(P+) kg-1 was observed in the soils of the research
region, with an average exchangeable magnesium (Mg++) concentration of 14.93 Cmol(P+)
kg-1. At 19.80 Cmol(P+) kg-1, soil sample S2 showed the greatest result, while soil sample
S10 showed lowest values at 6.90 Cmol(P+) kg-1.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca, and Mg of Soils from Non-Irrigated Farmland

During Monsoon Season

Secondary Nutrients
Mg
Cmol(P⁺) S (mg
Sr. No. Sample No. Ca Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 26 14.1 10.3
2 S-2 27.2 17.2 7.5
3 S-3 25.9 16.1 8.5
4 S-4 24.3 15.5 7.8
5 S-5 24.9 15.2 4.1
6 S-6 23.5 16 3.8
7 S-7 25.9 13.2 4
8 S-8 26.2 13.5 3.4
9 S-9 25.9 12.3 2.5
10 S-10 20.4 12.1 2.6
11 S-11 26.2 16.1 4
12 S-12 25.9 15.5 3.5
13 S-13 23.5 13.1 2.6
14 S-14 24.3 13.4 2.4
15 S-15 24.9 12.1 2.6
16 S-16 25.9 12 4.1
17 S-17 27.3 16.2 2.5
18 S-18 26.9 16.1 4
19 S-19 23.5 17.1 7.4
20 S-20 25.9 16.9 9.8
21 S-21 23.6 14 3.8
22 S-22 24.9 13.3 8.1
23 S-23 24.3 9.5 9.1

158
 24 S-24 22 9.8 2.6
25 S-25 23.5 17.2 2.5

30

25

20

15

10

0
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7 S-8 S-9 S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S- S-
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Secondary Nutrients Ca Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ Secondary Nutrients Mg Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹

Secondary Nutrients S (mg kg⁻¹)

The analysis of secondary nutrients—exchangeable calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and

sulfur (S)—in the soils from non-irrigated farmland during the monsoon season reveals
notable trends and variations among the samples.

Calcium levels in the samples range from 20.4 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in sample S-10 to 27.3
cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-17. This suggests that the calcium availability in non-irrigated
soils is relatively consistent, with most samples exhibiting adequate levels for healthy plant
growth, as calcium is essential for cell wall structure and plant stability.

Magnesium levels also show some variation, with values ranging from 9.5 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in
S-23 to 17.2 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in S-2 and S-25. Magnesium is crucial for photosynthesis and
enzyme function, and the observed levels indicate that most samples contain sufficient
magnesium to support crop health.

However, sulfur levels present a concern, with values ranging from as low as 2.4 mg kg ⁻¹ in
S-14 to 10.3 mg kg⁻¹ in S-1. The majority of samples exhibit relatively low sulfur content,
which is critical for protein synthesis and various metabolic processes in plants. The low
availability of sulfur in several samples may limit crop growth and yield, indicating a need
for fertilization strategies to address these deficiencies.

In summary, while calcium and magnesium levels appear to be generally adequate in non-
irrigated soils during the monsoon season, the low sulfur levels across many samples

159
highlight a potential nutrient limitation that could negatively affect agricultural productivity.
Targeted interventions may be necessary to improve sulfur availability and overall soil
fertility in these areas.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca, and Mg of Soils from Non-Irrigated Farmland

During Winter Season

Secondary Nutrients
Mg
Cmol(P⁺) S (mg
Sr. No. Sample No. Ca Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 26.5 14 11.1
2 S-2 27.8 17.4 8.2
3 S-3 26.3 15.9 8.8
4 S-4 24.7 15.3 8.1
5 S-5 24.5 15 5.2
6 S-6 23.1 16.3 4
7 S-7 25.3 13 4.2
8 S-8 26.5 14.2 3.8
9 S-9 25.6 12.7 3
10 S-10 20.1 12.5 3.1
11 S-11 26 16.2 4.2
12 S-12 26.2 15 3.8
13 S-13 23.4 13.2 3.1
14 S-14 24.4 13.8 2.8
15 S-15 25 12.4 3.1
16 S-16 25.4 11.9 4.3
17 S-17 27.4 16.5 3
18 S-18 26.7 16.4 4.4
19 S-19 23.2 16.9 8.1
20 S-20 26 16.8 10.5
21 S-21 23.3 13.9 4
22 S-22 24.8 14 8.3
23 S-23 24.1 9.8 9.3
24 S-24 21.9 10.2 3
25 S-25 23.7 17 2.9

160
The examination of secondary nutrients—exchangeable calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
sulphur (S)—in soils from non-irrigated agricultural land during winter reveals a diverse
nutritional composition across the samples.

Calcium levels are generally consistent, ranging from 20.1 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in sample S-10 to
27.8 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-2. Most samples exhibit adequate calcium levels, which are
essential for plant structure and growth, suggesting that the soils can support crop
development during this season.

Magnesium content shows some variation as well, with the lowest concentration at 9.8
cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-23 and the highest at 17.4 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in sample S-2.
Adequate magnesium levels are crucial for photosynthesis and overall plant health, and the
majority of samples fall within a satisfactory range for effective nutrient uptake.

Sulphur levels, which range from 2.8 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-14 to a comparatively higher
11.1 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-1, are concerning, nevertheless. Many samples contain low
amounts of sulphur, which may negatively impact plant development and production,
whereas a small number have adequate levels. Protein synthesis and other metabolic
processes depend on sulphur., and its deficiency in several samples suggests that targeted
fertilization may be necessary to enhance sulfur availability in these soils.

In summary, while the non-irrigated soils during the winter season demonstrate generally
sufficient levels of calcium and magnesium, the low sulfur levels across many samples
indicate a potential nutrient limitation that could impact agricultural productivity.

161
Addressing sulfur deficiencies through appropriate soil management practices may be
essential for optimizing crop yields in these areas.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca, and Mg of Soils from Non-Irrigated Farmland

During Summer Season

Secondary Nutrients
Mg Cmol(P⁺) S (mg
Sr. No. Sample No. Ca Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 27 14.1 11.3
2 S-2 28.1 17.5 8
3 S-3 26.8 16.2 9.2
4 S-4 25.2 15.6 8.3
5 S-5 25 14.8 5.6
6 S-6 24 16.5 4.4
7 S-7 26.2 13.4 4.6
8 S-8 27.1 14.5 3.9
9 S-9 26.3 13.2 3.4
10 S-10 21 12.8 3.2
11 S-11 27.5 15.2 4.1
12 S-12 25.6 14.9 3.8
13 S-13 24.3 13.1 3.1
14 S-14 25.2 13.7 2.8
15 S-15 26 12.6 3.2
16 S-16 26.4 12.3 4.5
17 S-17 28.3 17 3.2
18 S-18 27.8 16.7 4.5
19 S-19 24.6 17.3 8.3
20 S-20 26.7 16.9 10.9
21 S-21 24.5 14.2 4.3
22 S-22 25.9 14.5 8.7
23 S-23 25.3 10.1 9.5
24 S-24 23.4 10.5 3.3
25 S-25 24.8 17.5 2.9

162
The evaluation of secondary nutrients—exchangeable calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
sulphur (S)—in soils from non-irrigated agricultural land during the summer season
indicates considerable diversity in nutrient availability across the samples.

163
Calcium levels range from 21.0 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-10 to 28.3 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in
sample S-17, indicating generally adequate calcium availability in most samples. Sufficient
calcium is crucial for promoting plant health and structural integrity, suggesting that the soil
conditions during the summer are conducive to supporting crop growth.

Magnesium content also varies, with the lowest value at 10.1 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in sample S-23
and the highest at 17.5 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-2. Most samples maintain adequate
magnesium levels, which are essential for photosynthesis and enzyme activity, indicating
that the soils can effectively meet the magnesium requirements of growing crops.

In contrast, sulfur levels are notably lower across many samples, with values ranging from
2.8 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-14 to 11.3 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-1. While a few samples exhibit
relatively higher sulfur levels, the majority fall below optimal levels, potentially limiting
plant growth and productivity. Sulfur is vital for protein synthesis and several metabolic
processes, and its deficiency in many samples suggests a need for targeted fertilization to
improve sulfur availability. In summary, while non-irrigated soils during the summer season
show generally sufficient levels of calcium and magnesium, the widespread low sulfur levels
indicate a nutrient limitation that could adversely affect agricultural productivity.
Implementing soil management practices to enhance sulfur availability may be necessary to
optimize crop yields in these areas.

4.1.6 Status of available secondary macronutrients (Ca, Mg & S) in soils of non -

irrigated farmland
In Table 26, we can see that the concentration of soil accessible S varied between 3.67 and
11.39 kg ha-1. Out of seventeen soil samples, the available S amount was low, medium in
6, and high in 2 of the 25 samples. The research area's soils had an exchangeable calcium
and magnesium content ranging There was a notable amount of magnesium and
exchangeable calcium in each of the 25 soil samples.

Give information on the salt content, available sulphur level, and exchangeable calcium
level in the soils of the study region. Soil accessible sulphur levels ranged from 3.67 through
12.80 mg kg-1 in the study region during the monsoon season, with an average around 6.17
mg kg-1. The best choice was included into Soil S1.

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non- irrigated farmland

during Summer Season
164
Sr. No. Sample No. Ca (Cmol(P+) Mg (Cmol(P+) S (mg kg⁻¹)
kg⁻¹) kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 21.87 11.71 6.66
2 S-2 34.65 15.48 7.14
3 S-3 43.02 11.79 7.11
4 S-4 31.68 11.34 8.24
5 S-5 44.01 17.28 4.45
6 S-6 30.69 11.79 4.24
7 S-7 27.99 17.37 4.77
8 S-8 26.28 15.75 5.16
9 S-9 26.91 16.38 4.61
10 S-10 22.32 16.74 4.78
11 S-11 36.18 16.29 5.32
12 S-12 36.72 14.04 6.87
13 S-13 26.22 15.39 15.21
14 S-14 16.2 6.12 2.73
15 S-15 17.37 8.19 2
16 S-16 16.56 8.46 10.07
17 S-17 28.08 15.21 6.41
18 S-18 20.97 10.71 4.59
19 S-19 16.02 6.21 4.57
20 S-20 19.62 12.51 5.14
21 S-21 27.99 11.79 2.73
22 S-22 26.91 15.48 4.77
23 S-23 36.18 16.38 5.16
24 S-24 34.65 16.29 6.87
25 S-25 30.69 14.04 4.45

165
 Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non- irrigated farmland
during Summer Season

The status of available sulfur (S), exchangeable calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in non-
irrigated farmland soils during the summer season indicates a moderate to low nutrient
availability. Calcium levels range from 16.02 to 44.01 Cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹, showing a significant
reduction compared to irrigated soils, reflecting the limited nutrient replenishment due to
lack of irrigation. Magnesium levels vary from 6.12 to 17.37 Cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹, with higher
values observed in samples S-5, S-7, and S-9, likely due to local soil characteristics. Sulfur
levels are generally low, ranging from 2.0 to 15.21 mg kg⁻¹, with most samples below the
critical limit for optimal plant growth, except S-13, which shows a substantially higher value
(15.21 mg kg⁻¹). This data underscores the need for targeted soil fertility management in
non-irrigated farmland to address nutrient deficiencies and support sustainable crop
production during the summer season.

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non-irrigated farmland

during monsoon Season.

Ca (Cmol(P+) Mg (Cmol(P+)
Sr. No. Sample No. kg⁻¹) kg⁻¹) S (mg kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 25.56 12.78 7.65
2 S-2 35.1 14.85 7.11
3 S-3 40.95 12.6 7.38
4 S-4 33.39 12.15 8.55
5 S-5 44.28 16.49 5.49
6 S-6 34.83 13.32 5.31
166
 7 S-7 31.68 17.82 6.03
8 S-8 30.51 16.2 5.58
9 S-9 31.14 16.11 5.4
10 S-10 26.19 16.47 4.95
11 S-11 37.26 16.74 6.21
12 S-12 37.8 14.31 7.02
13 S-13 28.08 15.66 8.01
14 S-14 18.72 6.57 3.42
15 S-15 19.35 8.82 2.25
16 S-16 17.46 8.64 9.45
17 S-17 29.88 14.4 6.57
18 S-18 22.05 10.89 4.68
19 S-19 16.47 6.75 4.59
20 S-20 21.33 13.05 5.31
21 S-21 30.51 12.42 3.6
22 S-22 27.63 16.02 5.49
23 S-23 37.35 16.47 6.39
24 S-24 35.55 16.38 6.21
25 S-25 32.58 14.31 5.67

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non irrigated farmland

during monsoon Season.

The status of available sulfur (S), exchangeable calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in non-
irrigated farmland soils during the monsoon season reveals moderate nutrient levels, with
variation across samples. Calcium content ranges from 16.47 to 44.28 Cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹,
showing moderate availability for plant uptake, with higher values in samples such as S-5

167
and S-3. Magnesium levels range from 6.57 to 17.82 Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹, with S-7 and S-5
having the highest concentrations, indicating sufficient magnesium supply for crops. Sulfur
levels are generally low, with values between 2.25 and 9.45 mg kg ⁻¹, with S-16 showing the
highest sulfur content. Most of the sulfur levels are below the optimal range for crop growth,
particularly in samples like S-15, S-19, and S-14. Overall, while there is a reasonable supply
of calcium and magnesium, sulfur deficiencies in many samples may limit plant growth and
productivity in non-irrigated soils during the monsoon season.

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non-irrigated farmland

during winter Season.

Sr. No. Sample No. Ca (Cmol(P+) Mg (Cmol(P+) S (mg kg⁻¹)

kg⁻¹) kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 22.61 10.03 7.49
2 S-2 34.09 16.24 6.96
3 S-3 42.16 10.46 7.81
4 S-4 34.85 10.88 8.67
5 S-5 43.95 17.09 4.51
6 S-6 40.04 11.99 4.51
7 S-7 41.82 24.31 5.62
8 S-8 26.44 16.32 5.58
9 S-9 33.92 16.24 4.51
10 S-10 38.51 18.79 5.41
11 S-11 51.85 16.24 5.21
12 S-12 52.11 13.43 7.13
13 S-13 48.62 16.24 7.81
14 S-14 27.37 7.39 2.83
15 S-15 32.56 8.42 2.4
16 S-16 23.89 9.52 7.81
17 S-17 33.15 18.79 6.14
18 S-18 31.71 11.14 5.19
19 S-19 24.05 11.22 5.36
20 S-20 35.36 16.41 5.86
21 S-21 48.62 9.42 5.58

168
 22 S-22 27.64 10.88 7.49
23 S-23 41.82 11.99 7.13
24 S-24 43.95 13.43 5.62
25 S-25 34.09 10.03 5.41

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non irrigated farmland

during winter Season.

The status of available sulfur (S), exchangeable calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in non-
irrigated farmland soils during the winter season shows moderate to high calcium and
magnesium availability, but sulfur remains a limiting factor in several samples. Calcium
levels range from 22.61 to 52.11 Cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹, with samples such as S-11 and S-12
showing the highest calcium concentrations, suggesting that calcium is adequately available
for plant uptake. Magnesium levels vary from 7.39 to 24.31 Cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹, with S-7 having
the highest magnesium content, indicating that magnesium is generally not a limiting
nutrient. However, sulfur levels are relatively low, ranging from 2.4 to 8.67 mg kg ⁻¹, with
many samples like S-15, S-14, and S-19 showing sulfur concentrations below optimal levels
for crop growth. This suggests that while calcium and magnesium are sufficiently available,
sulfur deficiency could potentially hinder plant growth and productivity in non-irrigated
soils during the winter season.

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from irrigated farmland during

Summer Season.

169
 Secondary nutrients

Sr. Sample No. Ca Mg S

No. Cmol(P+) kg-1 Cmol(P+) kg-1 (mg kg-1)

1 S-1 24.30 13.01 7.40

2 S-2 38.50 17.20 7.93

3 S-3 47.80 13.10 7.90

4 S-4 35.20 12.60 9.15

5 S-5 48.90 19.20 4.94

6 S-6 34.10 13.10 4.71

7 S-7 31.10 19.30 5.30

8 S-8 29.20 17.50 5.73

9 S-9 29.90 18.20 5.12

10 S-10 24.80 18.60 5.31

11 S-11 40.20 18.10 5.91

12 S-12 40.80 15.60 7.63

13 S-13 29.13 17.10 16.90

14 S-14 18.00 6.80 3.03

15 S-15 19.30 9.10 2.22

16 S-16 18.40 9.40 11.19

17 S-17 31.20 16.90 7.12

18 S-18 23.30 11.90 5.10

19 S-19 17.80 6.90 5.08

20 S-20 21.80 13.90 5.71

170
 21 S-21 31.10 13.10 3.03

22 S-22 29.90 17.20 5.30

23 S-23 40.20 18.20 5.73

24 S-24 38.50 18.10 7.63

25 S-25 34.10 15.60 4.94

Status of available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from irrigated farmland during

Summer Season.
The data in provides a detailed analysis of the status of essential secondary nutrients—
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and Sulfur (S)—in soils from irrigated farmland during the
summer season. These secondary nutrients are critical for plant health and soil fertility,
influencing crop productivity. The calcium content across the samples varies significantly,
ranging from a minimum of 17.80 Cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ (Sample S-19) to a maximum of 48.90
Cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ (Sample S-5). Calcium is essential for cell wall strength and enzyme activity
in plants. Magnesium, another vital nutrient that plays a key role in chlorophyll production
and enzyme activation, also shows variability across the samples, with values spanning from

171
6.80 Cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ (Sample S-14) to 19.30 Cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ (Sample S-7). Sulfur levels,
which affect amino acid synthesis and plant protein formation, range between 2.22 mg kg ⁻¹
(Sample S-15) and 16.90 mg kg⁻¹ (Sample S-13). This wide range indicates variability in
sulfur availability, which can impact crop quality. Sample S-13 displays the highest sulfur
concentration, suggesting it may support better protein synthesis and growth compared to
soils with lower sulfur content, such as Samples S-14 and S-15, which have considerably
lower sulfur levels. Overall, this analysis of secondary nutrients shows that while certain
samples have balanced levels of calcium, magnesium, and sulfur, others display nutrient
deficiencies or surpluses. This variability in nutrient availability suggests that tailored
fertilization strategies may be necessary to optimize nutrient management, ensuring
improved soil health and crop yield in these irrigated farmlands.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca, and Mg of Soils from Irrigated Farmland

During Monsoon Season

Sr. No. Sample No. Ca (Cmol(P+) Mg (Cmol(P+) S (mg kg⁻¹)

kg⁻¹) kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 28.4 14.2 8.5
2 S-2 39 16.5 7.9
3 S-3 45.5 14 8.2
4 S-4 37.1 13.5 9.5
5 S-5 49.2 19.4 6.1
6 S-6 38.7 14.8 5.9
7 S-7 35.2 19.8 6.7
8 S-8 33.9 18 6.2
9 S-9 34.6 17.9 6
10 S-10 29.1 18.3 5.5
11 S-11 41.4 18.6 6.9
12 S-12 42 15.9 7.8
13 S-13 31.2 17.4 8.9
14 S-14 20.8 7.3 3.8
15 S-15 21.5 9.8 2.5
16 S-16 19.4 9.6 10.5
17 S-17 33.2 16 7.3
18 S-18 24.5 12.1 5.2

172
 19 S-19 18.3 7.5 5.1
20 S-20 23.7 14.5 5.9
21 S-21 33.9 13.8 4
22 S-22 30.7 17.8 6.1
23 S-23 41.5 18.3 7.1
24 S-24 39.5 18.2 6.9
25 S-25 36.2 15.9 6.3

The assessment of available sulfur (S), exchangeable calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in
soils from irrigated farmland during the monsoon season provides valuable insights into
nutrient dynamics that influence crop productivity.

Calcium concentrations vary among the samples, ranging from a low of 19.4 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹
in sample S-16 to a high of 49.2 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-5. Most samples exhibit
adequate calcium levels, essential for strong root development, cell wall structure, and
overall plant health. Notably, several samples, including S-5, S-11, and S-23, demonstrate
calcium levels well above the critical threshold, indicating a supportive environment for
crop growth.

Magnesium levels also show variability, with values spanning from 7.3 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in
sample S-14 to 19.8 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-7. Adequate magnesium is crucial for
chlorophyll production and enzyme activation in plants. Many samples, such as S-5 and S-7,
possess good magnesium levels, suggesting a favorable nutrient balance. However, lower
173
magnesium levels in samples S-14 and S-15 may limit optimal plant function and require
management interventions.

Sample S-15 has the lowest sulphur concentration at 2.5 mg kg ⁻¹, whereas sample S-16 has
the highest sulphur amount at 10.5 mg kg⁻¹. While some samples meet or exceed critical
levels for sulfur, several fall short, particularly S-15 and S-14, which could impede essential
plant processes such as protein synthesis and enzyme function. The higher sulfur content in
sample S-16 is noteworthy, indicating potential for enhanced crop health and productivity.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca, and Mg of Soils from Irrigated Farmland

During Winter Season

Ca (Cmol(P+) Mg (Cmol(P+)
Sr. No. Sample No. kg⁻¹) kg⁻¹) S (mg kg⁻¹)
1 S-1 26.6 11.8 8.81
2 S-2 40.1 19.1 8.19
3 S-3 49.6 12.3 9.19
4 S-4 41 12.8 10.2
5 S-5 51.7 20.1 5.3
6 S-6 47.1 14.1 5.31
7 S-7 49.2 28.6 6.61
8 S-8 31.1 19.2 6.57
9 S-9 39.9 19.1 5.31
10 S-10 45.3 22.1 6.37
11 S-11 61 19.1 6.13
12 S-12 61.3 15.8 8.39
13 S-13 57.2 19.1 9.19
14 S-14 32.2 8.7 3.33
15 S-15 38.3 9.9 2.82
16 S-16 28.1 11.2 9.19
17 S-17 39 22.1 7.22
18 S-18 37.3 13.1 6.11
19 S-19 28.3 13.2 6.31
20 S-20 41.6 19.3 6.89
21 S-21 57.2 11.08 6.57
22 S-22 32.52 12.8 8.81
23 S-23 49.2 14.1 8.39
24 S-24 51.7 15.8 6.61
25 S-25 40.1 11.8 6.37

174
The analysis of available sulfur (S), exchangeable calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in
soils from irrigated farmland during the winter season reveals important nutrient dynamics
that influence agricultural productivity.

Calcium levels in the samples range from 26.6 cmol(P ⁺) kg ⁻¹ in sample S-1 to 61.3
cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-12, indicating a generally good supply of this essential nutrient.
High calcium levels, especially in samples such as S-11 and S-12, are beneficial for root
structure, plant stability, and nutrient absorption. Most samples show adequate to high
calcium concentrations, which supports strong plant health during the winter season.

Magnesium levels also display considerable variation, with values ranging from 8.7
cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-14 to 28.6 cmol(P⁺) kg⁻¹ in sample S-7. Magnesium is crucial
for chlorophyll production and photosynthesis, and the higher levels found in samples like
S-7 suggest a favorable environment for crop development. However, samples S-14 and S-
15 show lower magnesium levels, which could negatively affect plant metabolism and
growth if not addressed.

The sulfur content in the samples ranges from a low of 2.82 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample S-15 to a
high of 10.2 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-4. While several samples, including S-4 and S-3, have
sufficient sulfur levels to support critical plant functions such as protein synthesis, others,
particularly S-15 and S-14, indicate potential deficiencies. Because of this unpredictability,
managing the supply of sulphur is crucial for achieving maximum plant development and
yield.

175
4.1.7 Status of available micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn & Zn) in soil of irrigated farmland
a. Soil micronutrient deficiencies are becoming more common as a result of intensive
farming practices, among which are the use of fertilisers and crop varieties known to
produce abundant harvests. Hence, it is now crucial to check soils for Cu, Fe, Zn,
and Mn.

The given table include the data on the classification and extractable Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn
from Diethylene Triamine Pentacetic acid. Soil DTPA extractable Fe concentrations ranged
from Soil samples S9 and S24 had the lowest and highest DTPA extractable Fe contents,
respectively, at 2.024 and 4.82 mg kg-1, with S17 and S24 coming in second and third, with
3.838 and 3.83 mg kg-1, respectively.

The DTPA extractable Fe concentration ranged from low (5 samples) to high (2 samples)
among 25 soil samples.

A mean of 0.49 mg kg-1 of DTPA-extractable zinc was found in a range of soils, from 0.25
and 1.224 mg kg-1. Soil samples S22 and S4 had the highest and second-highest DPTA-
extractable zinc concentrations, respectively, at 1.224 and 0.878 mg kg-1, whereas samples
S25 and S22 had the lowest concentrations (0.25 mg kg-1).

Out of the 25 soil samples that were analysed, 18 had DTPA-extractable zinc levels below
0.6, 7 had DTPA-extractable zinc contents between 0.6 and 1.2, and none had a high
concentration over 1.2. The range about available DTPA-extractable manganese (Mn) in
these soils was 2.032 to 9.156 mg/kg, with an average of 3.65 mg/kg. Soils from series S11
had the lowest concentration of DTPA-extractable Mn (2.032 mg/kg), while soils from
series S6 and S13 had the highest (9.156 mg/kg and 5.726 mg/kg, respectively!).

Status of available micronutrient of soils from irrigated farmland during Monsoon

Season

Micronutrients (mgkg-1)
Sr.
Sample No.
No.
Fe Cu Mn Zn
1 S-1 2.906 5.418 2.626 0.304
2 S-2 2.860 3.088 3.062 0.530
3 S-3 2.820 1.890 2.240 0.554

176
4 S-4 2.748 4.824 2.624 0.878
5 S-5 3.260 3.456 3.478 0.818
6 S-6 2.980 2.310 9.156 0.618
7 S-7 2.126 4.858 2.392 0.224
8 S-8 2.260 1.714 3.816 0.352
9 S-9 2.642 2.906 5.784 0.398
10 S-10 2.024 2.178 2.470 0.324
11 S-11 2.050 1.102 2.032 0.504
12 S-12 2.386 1.312 4.772 0.434
13 S-13 2.748 3.580 5.726 0.478
14 S-14 4.118 3.212 5.378 0.250
15 S-15 4.170 2.944 3.966 0.306
16 S-16 2.004 3.092 2.984 0.678
17 S-17 3.838 3.324 3.674 0.625
18 S-18 4.704 2.682 3.438 0.360
19 S-19 3.318 2.286 2.736 0.512
20 S-20 4.198 3.504 3.716 0.424
21 S-21 3.094 4.488 3.966 0.352
22 S-22 3.980 1.714 2.470 1.224
23 S-23 3.642 2.312 2.240 0.610
24 S-24 4.820 3.088 3.478 0.324
25 S-25 3.980 1.312 2.984 0.250

177
 Status of available micronutrient of soils from irrigated farmland during Monsoon
Season
The data about the status of accessible micronutrients in irrigated agricultural soils during
the monsoon season reveals considerable variance in the amounts of iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) between samples. These micronutrients play essential roles
in soil fertility and crop health, and their levels reflect both natural soil composition and the
impact of agricultural practices. Iron (Fe) contents vary from 2.004 mg/kg (S-16) to 4.820
mg/kg (S-24), with the majority of samples exhibiting Fe values between 2 and 4 mg/kg,
which are typically sufficient for agricultural development. Higher Fe levels, as in samples
S-24 (4.820 mg/kg) and S-18 (4.704 mg/kg), suggest soils with good iron availability, likely
benefiting crop photosynthesis and respiration processes. Copper (Cu) concentrations vary
widely, from 1.102 mg/kg (S-11) to 5.418 mg/kg (S-1). Several samples, like S-1 and S-7,
have Cu levels above 4 mg/kg, indicating sufficient availability, which supports enzyme
functions and nitrogen fixation in plants. Lower Cu levels, found in S-11, may suggest a
need for supplementation depending on the crop’s Cu requirements. Manganese (Mn)
content also shows a broad range, from 2.032 mg/kg (S-11) to a high of 9.156 mg/kg (S-6).
High Mn concentrations in samples like S-6 (9.156 mg/kg) and S-9 (5.784 mg/kg) can be
beneficial as Mn is essential for the metabolism of nitrogen and photosynthesis. But very
elevated Mn levels could become toxic to plants, depending on the crop species and soil pH.

178
Zinc (Zn) levels range from 0.224 mg/kg (S-7) to 1.224 mg/kg (S-22). Many samples have
Zn concentrations around or below 0.5 mg/kg, which might indicate potential deficiencies,
as Zn is critical for growth hormone production and enzyme systems in plants. Higher
levels, as in S-22 (1.224 mg/kg), are optimal for crops, supporting plant growth and
development. Overall, the micronutrient analysis shows that most soils have adequate Fe
and Cu levels, while Zn and Mn levels vary more widely, with some samples showing
potential deficiencies or excesses. For optimum crop production on irrigated farmland
around the season of monsoons, soil testing and specific fertiliser management are crucial
due to this unpredictability.

Status of Available Micronutrient of Soils from Irrigated Farmland during Winter

Season

Micronutrients (mg kg⁻¹)

Sr. No. Sample No. Fe Cu Mn Zn
1 W-1 3.256 4.21 4.678 0.512
2 W-2 3.428 3.456 3.256 0.456
3 W-3 3.56 2.98 5.004 0.624
4 W-4 3.104 4.86 2.51 0.732
5 W-5 4.12 3.842 3.908 0.358
6 W-6 4.025 2.484 3.215 0.388
7 W-7 3.89 4.172 3.582 0.484
8 W-8 3.552 3.988 4.79 0.525
9 W-9 2.89 2.53 2.487 0.297
10 W-10 4.06 1.98 3.934 0.658
11 W-11 3.014 2.672 4.567 0.392
12 W-12 3.495 3.21 2.823 0.49
13 W-13 2.21 3.37 5.412 0.303
14 W-14 3.86 1.812 3.54 0.374
15 W-15 2.874 2.41 4.67 0.52
16 W-16 4.305 2.945 3.198 0.284
17 W-17 4.756 3.012 3.472 0.678
18 W-18 3.185 3.45 4.24 0.496
19 W-19 3.721 2.762 4.987 0.255
20 W-20 4.112 4.037 3.356 0.643
179
 21 W-21 3.389 3.378 5.471 0.302
22 W-22 4.205 3.123 2.21 0.688
23 W-23 3.732 1.567 4.865 0.4
24 W-24 2.978 3.042 3.554 0.36
25 W-25 3.456 2.715 2.59 0.417

Iron (Fe) levels across the samples range from 2.21 mg kg⁻¹ in sample W-13 to 4.756 mg
kg⁻¹ in sample W-17. Most samples exhibit iron concentrations within a moderate to high
range, with several samples, such as W-5 and W-20, indicating good availability. Adequate
iron levels are vital for chlorophyll synthesis and overall plant health, suggesting that the
majority of the soils analyzed can support healthy crop production.

Copper (Cu) concentrations show more variability, with values spanning from 1.567 mg
kg⁻¹ in sample W-23 to 4.86 mg kg⁻¹ in sample W-4. While several samples contain
sufficient copper levels beneficial for various enzymatic processes, the lower levels found in
samples W-10 and W-14 may indicate potential deficiencies that could hinder plant growth
if not supplemented appropriately.

Manganese (Mn) levels range from 2.21 mg kg⁻¹ in sample W-22 to 5.412 mg kg ⁻¹ in
sample W-13. Most samples reflect adequate manganese availability, with many samples
exceeding the minimum required for optimal plant development. This element is crucial for
photosynthesis and other metabolic functions, indicating that manganese supply is generally
favorable across the sampled soils.
180
Zinc (Zn) concentrations are the lowest among the micronutrients evaluated, samples W-19
and W-4 had concentrations that fluctuated between 0.255 mg kg ⁻¹ to 0.732 mg kg ⁻¹.
Crops may be in jeopardy due to generally low zinc levels as the element is essential
essential plant growth and development.

Notably, several samples show zinc levels below the recommended threshold for crops,
highlighting a critical area for potential fertilizer application or soil amendments to improve
zinc availability.

Status of Available Micronutrient of Soils from Irrigated Farmland during Summer

Season

Micronutrients (mg kg⁻¹)

Sr. No. Sample No. Fe Cu Mn Zn
1 S-1 3.156 4.92 4.13 0.508
2 S-2 3.26 2.8 3.674 0.444
3 S-3 3.018 3.125 4.098 0.525
4 S-4 3.44 4.212 3.856 0.368
5 S-5 4.152 3.42 3.812 0.634
6 S-6 3.82 2.784 4.678 0.419
7 S-7 2.84 4.678 5.124 0.324
8 S-8 4.02 2.31 3.242 0.472
9 S-9 3.116 2.49 4.102 0.314
10 S-10 3.67 1.84 2.94 0.554
11 S-11 3.8 3.007 3.92 0.476
12 S-12 3.225 2.112 5.42 0.391
13 S-13 4.123 2.56 2.81 0.408
14 S-14 3.001 3.892 4.745 0.524
15 S-15 2.69 2.435 3.21 0.277
16 S-16 3.855 3.84 4.654 0.368
17 S-17 3.295 4.56 3.231 0.469
18 S-18 2.984 3.005 2.12 0.41
19 S-19 4.004 2.825 3.58 0.358
20 S-20 3.41 1.21 2.42 0.512
21 S-21 4.034 3.674 4.998 0.456
22 S-22 3.14 2.211 3.911 0.308
181
 23 S-23 3.885 3.145 5.303 0.275
24 S-24 3.21 2.91 2.12 0.493
25 S-25 2.98 2.54 4.87 0.305

The evaluation of available micronutrients in soils from irrigated farmland during the
summer season provides crucial insights into the nutritional profile of the soilThis is critical
for maintaining the well-being and yield of crops.

Iron (Fe) concentrations across the samples range from 2.69 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample S-15 to
4.152 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-5. Most samples exhibit moderate to good levels of iron, with
several samples such as S-5 and S-21 reflecting sufficient availability for plant uptake.
Given the importance of iron for chlorophyll formation and photosynthesis, these levels are
generally favorable for crop growth.

Copper (Cu) levels show greater variability, ranging from 1.21 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample S-20 to
4.92 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-1. While a few samples demonstrate adequate copper levels, the
lower concentrations observed in samples S-10 and S-20 may suggest potential deficiencies
that could impact plant health if not addressed. Copper is vital for various enzymatic
functions in plants, and its availability can significantly influence overall crop development.

182
Manganese (Mn) concentrations range from 2.12 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-18 to 5.303 mg kg ⁻¹
in sample S-23. Most samples show adequate manganese levels, which are essential for
photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen metabolism. The overall presence of manganese is
promising, indicating that the soils can support healthy growth, although some samples, like
S-18, exhibit lower levels that may need monitoring.

Zinc (Zn) levels are notably low across the samples, with values ranging from 0.275 mg
kg⁻¹ in sample S-23 to 0.634 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-5. The majority of samples fall below the
recommended threshold for adequate zinc availability, raising concerns about potential zinc
deficiency in crops. Since zinc is critical for enzyme function and growth regulation in
plants, the observed low levels indicate a significant risk that could affect crop yields and
quality.

4.1.8 Status of available micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn & Zn) in soil of non-irrigated
farmland

a) Monsoon season (non-irrigated):

Tables 31 as well as 34 include the statistics and classifications for DTPA Fe, Cu,
magnesium, as well as Zn. With a spectrum in 2.052 to 4.354 mg kg ⁻¹, the soils showed a
standard DTPA-extractable Fe concentration of 2.85 mg kg⁻¹. Soil samples S4 and S7
exhibited the greatest concentrations of DTPA-extractable Fe at 3.838 and 4.354 mg kg-1,
respectively, whereas soil sample S2 had its lowest value at 2.052 mg kg-1.
Eleven of the twenty-five soil samples had an inadequate DTPA extractable Fe content,
whereas fourteen of them had a medium one.

Eleven of the twenty-five soil samples had minimal DTPA extractable Fe content, whereas
fourteen of them had a medium one. The results showed that the DTPA extractable zinc in
these soils ranged from 2.392-17.15%, with a mean of 0.56 mg kg-1. In terms of DPTA-
extractable Zn content, sample soil S5 had the lowest concentration at 0.276 mg kg-1,
whereas samples S6 and S18 had the greatest values at 0.732 mg kg-1 as well as 0.640 mg
kg-1, respectively.
Sixteen of the soil samples had DTPA-extractable zinc levels below 0.6, nine had values
between 0.6 and 1.2, and not a single one had levels over 1.2. According to the
supplementary data, the soils had an average DTPA-extractable manganese concentration of

183
4.14 mg kg-1, ranging from 2.392 to 7.15 mg kg-1. The lowest DTPA-extractable
magnesium level was found in soil S21, with 1.392 mg kg-1, while the greatest values were
found in soils S6 and S8, with 7.150 mg kg-1 as well as 6.430 mg kg-1, respectively. The 25
soil samples showed varying concentrations of DTPA-extractable Mn: 0 had a low content
(<2 mg kg-1), 15 had a medium concentration (2-5 mg kg-1), and 10 had a high value (> 5
mg kg-1).

Status of available micronutrient of soils from non-irrigated farmland during

Monsoon Season

Sr. Micronutrients (mg kg-1)

Sample No.
No. Fe Cu Mn Zn
1 S-1 2.094 4.488 2.878 0.494
2 S-2 2.052 3.458 5.556 0.730
3 S-3 2.906 0.676 5.616 0.550
4 S-4 3.838 4.568 5.544 0.622
5 S-5 2.286 2.424 3.410 0.276
6 S-6 2.318 4.064 7.150 0.640
7 S-7 4.354 1.834 2.654 0.370
8 S-8 2.286 3.262 6.430 0.602
9 S-9 3.180 2.920 5.556 0.538
10 S-10 2.286 2.286 5.616 0.480
11 S-11 3.090 2.424 3.410 0.576
12 S-12 2.286 1.834 2.654 0.550
13 S-13 3.300 2.286 6.430 0.496
14 S-14 3.180 1.382 2.878 0.670
15 S-15 2.286 1.784 5.556 0.538
16 S-16 3.052 2.312 5.616 0.480
17 S-17 2.318 1.834 3.410 0.622
18 S-18 4.354 6.746 2.716 0.732
19 S-19 2.004 3.458 3.392 0.670
20 S-20 2.126 1.834 2.626 0.602
21 S-21 3.642 1.890 2.392 0.512

184
 22 S-22 2.980 2.944 2.966 0.650
23 S-23 2.820 1.834 2.654 0.512
24 S-24 3.052 1.312 2.878 0.494
25 S-25 3.094 0.676 3.410 0.538

Soil DTPA-extractable Cu concentrations throughout the monsoon season in the research

area varied between 0.676 and 6.746 mg kg-1, exhibiting a standard of 2.58 mg kg-1. Soil
S3 had the least amount of DTPA-extractable copper were 0.676 mg kg-1, whereas grounds
S1 and S18 had the greatest concentrations at 4.488 and 6.741 mg kg-1, respectively. The
25 soil samples collected from the research area were all found to have an elevated content
of copper that could be extracted using DTPA.

Status of available micronutrient of soils from non-irrigated farmland during Winter

Season.

Sr. Micronutrients (mg kg-1)

Sample No.
No. Fe Cu Mn Zn
1 S-1 2.001 3.210 2.210 0.457
2 S-2 2.006 3.861 6.714 0.669
3 S-3 2.211 3.400 6.661 0.507
4 S-4 3.998 3.500 5.617 0.601
5 S-5 2.200 4.017 3.411 0.261
6 S-6 4.012 2.310 5.210 0.551
185
7 S-7 2.200 1.631 2.175 0.239
8 S-8 4.012 2.870 5.564 0.598
9 S-9 3.198 2.800 4.731 0.550
10 S-10 2.300 1.987 4.631 0.390
11 S-11 2.200 3.001 2.175 0.261
12 S-12 3.603 3.006 2.210 0.239
13 S-13 2.001 2.870 4.631 0.312
14 S-14 3.680 3.500 3.411 0.431
15 S-15 3.560 3.861 3.910 0.617
16 S-16 2.198 3.210 3.871 0.290
17 S-17 2.001 2.310 2.713 0.507
18 S-18 1.603 2.301 2.610 0.601
19 S-19 3.006 2.910 3.710 0.551
20 S-20 2.211 2.618 5.564 0.598
21 S-21 2.300 2.470 4.731 0.333
22 S-22 2.200 2.611 5.617 0.491
23 S-23 3.001 2.800 6.661 0.621
24 S-24 2.211 1.987 2.175 0.402
25 S-25 3.006 3.400 2.210 0.390

The 25 soil samples, none had a low DTPA extractable Mn concentration (less than 5 mg
kg-1), 17 had a medium amount (2 to 5 mg kg-1), and 8 had a high content (more than 5 mg
186
kg-1). Soils in the research area categorised as winter had DTPA-extractable Cu
concentrations between 1.631 and 4.017 mg kg-1, with a mean of 2.90 mg kg-1. The soil
samples S5 and S2 exhibited the highest DTPA-extractable Cu concentrations (4.017 and
3.861 mg kg-1, respectively), whereas soil sample S7 recorded the lowest concentration
(1.631 mg kg-1). All 25 soil samples exhibited elevated levels of DTPA-extractable copper.

Status of available micronutrient of soils from non - irrigated farmland during

Summer Season .

Sr. Micronutrients (mg/kg)

Sample No.
No.
Fe Cu Mn Zn
1 S-1 2.781 2.218 2.017 0.399
2 S-2 2.684 3.691 4.617 0.561
3 S-3 6.210 3.198 4.521 0.493
4 S-4 1.380 0.348 4.551 0.581
5 S-5 2.761 4.117 2.310 0.266
6 S-6 3.010 2.107 6.171 0.534
7 S-7 2.010 1.290 2.971 2.310
8 S-8 4.010 2.600 4.450 5.900
9 S-9 4.131 1.990 4.172 0.499
10 S-10 2.130 1.680 4.001 0.380
11 S-11 1.010 3.198 3.310 0.681
12 S-12 6.010 2.107 3.971 0.231
13 S-13 4.210 2.600 4.172 0.499
14 S-14 2.781 1.900 3.471 0.380
15 S-15 2.684 3.691 2.017 0.693
16 S-16 3.002 2.180 2.936 0.581
17 S-17 1.210 2.271 2.971 0.390
18 S-18 1.210 1.290 4.450 0.361
19 S-19 1.701 2.600 4.001 0.483
20 S-20 1.001 1.680 2.683 0.399
21 S-21 1.200 2.218 2.693 0.390

187
22 S-22 1.800 3.691 2.101 0.658
23 S-23 1.684 3.198 3.001 0.493
24 S-24 1.784 0.398 2.310 0.266
25 S-25 1.010 1.290 2.971 0.590

188
The analysis of available micronutrients in soils from non-irrigated farmland during the
summer season reveals significant insights into the soil's nutritional status, which is vital for
crop production.

Iron (Fe) levels in the samples range from a low of 1.001 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample S-20 to a high
of 6.210 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-3. The overall iron content appears to be relatively low, with
many samples (e.g., S-17 and S-18) showing notably deficient levels. This is concerning, as
iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis and overall plant health. The limited availability of
iron in these soils could negatively impact crop growth and yield.

Copper (Cu) concentrations also display variability, with values ranging from 0.348 mg kg⁻¹
in sample S-4 to 4.117 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-5. While some samples, like S-5 and S-2,
demonstrate adequate levels, many others fall below the optimal range. Copper is crucial for
various physiological functions in plants, and its deficiency may impair growth and
development.

Manganese (Mn) levels range from 2.017 from 6.172 mg kg⁻¹ in item S-6 to 6.172 mg kg ⁻¹
in data S-1 and S-15, with several samples displaying sufficient manganese availability for
plant uptake. Manganese is important for photosynthesis and enzyme function; hence, the
presence of adequate levels in many samples is encouraging for crop health.

189
Zinc (Zn) concentrations are notably low across the board, with values ranging from 0.231
mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-12 to a peak of 5.900 mg kg⁻¹ in sample S-8. While sample S-8
indicates an exceptionally high zinc level, most other samples, especially S-1, S-4, and S-24,
exhibit significantly low concentrations. Zinc is critical for enzyme activity and plant
metabolism, and its scarcity could severely hinder crop productivity.

Progress with available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non-irrigated

farmland during Summer Season

Sr. Secondary nutrients

No. Sample No. Ca Cmol(P+) kg-1 Mg Cmol(P+) kg-1 S

(mg kg-1)

1 S-1 26.80 13.60 10.00

2 S-2 27.10 16.80 7.21

3 S-3 25.80 15.80 8.81

4 S-4 24.20 15.10 7.83

5 S-5 24.80 15.10 3.91

6 S-6 23.40 15.60 3.53

7 S-7 25.80 12.80 3.91

8 S-8 26.10 13.20 3.33

9 S-9 25.80 11.90 2.21

10 S-10 20.20 11.60 2.30

11 S-11 26.10 15.80 3.91

12 S-12 25.80 15.10 3.33

13 S-13 23.40 12.80 2.30

14 S-14 24.20 13.20 2.21

190
 15 S-15 24.80 11.90 2.33

16 S-16 25.80 11.60 3.91

17 S-17 27.10 15.80 2.22

18 S-18 26.80 15.80 3.91

19 S-19 23.30 16.80 7.20

20 S-20 25.80 16.80 10.00

21 S-21 23.40 13.60 3.53

22 S-22 24.80 13.10 7.83

23 S-23 24.20 9.10 8.81

24 S-24 21.80 9.40 2.30

25 S-25 23.30 16.90 2.21

Progress with available S, exchangeable Ca and Mg of soils from non-irrigated

farmland during Summer Season
Summertime soil conditions of exchangeable calcium, magnesium, and accessible sulfur in
non-irrigated agriculture are shown in the table below. Every one of the 25 samples (S-1

191
through S-25) in the table has a value for the secondary nutrient, which is Presented as
Cmol(P+) kg-1 for Ca and Mg and as mg kg-1 for S.

Nutrient concentrations varied across samples, according to the data analysis. Soil calcium
concentration varies between samples, as shown by results ranging from 20.20 to 27.10
Cmol(P+) kg-1 for calcium. Levels of magnesium, which reflect changes in soil magnesium
concentrations, also range from 9.10–16.90 Cmol (P+) kg-1. Sulphur concentrations vary
across soil samples, fluctuating between 2.21 and 10.00 mg kg-1. This indicates that the
sulfur availability varies across the soil types. These differences in secondary nutrient levels
show how the non-irrigated agriculture in the research region has very different fertility of
the soil all summer long. To optimise agricultural output and sustainability, agronomists and
farmers must have a firm grasp of these nutrient dynamics before deciding how to manage
soil, whether that's by adding nutrients via fertilizer or soil amendments. We may learn more
about soil health, nutrient deficits, and possible management solutions to boost agricultural
output in the area if we analyze and interpret these data further.

Progress with Available S, Exchangeable Ca and Mg of Soils from Non-Irrigated

Farmland During Monsoon Season

Sr. No. Sample No. Ca Cmol(P+) Mg Cmol(P+) S (mg kg⁻¹)

kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹
1 M-1 27 14.2 11.5
2 M-2 26.5 15.9 8.4
3 M-3 25.6 14.8 9.5
4 M-4 24 14.5 6.8
5 M-5 25 13.8 4.5
6 M-6 23.9 14.7 3.8
7 M-7 25.4 13.1 4.2
8 M-8 26.2 13.5 3.5
9 M-9 24.5 11.5 2.9
10 M-10 21.5 11.9 2.5
11 M-11 26.4 15.1 4.1
12 M-12 25.5 14.8 3.7
13 M-13 23.8 12.9 2.6
14 M-14 24.7 13.3 2.8
15 M-15 24.9 12.2 3.1
192
 16 M-16 25.6 12.1 4.3
17 M-17 27.2 14.5 2.8
18 M-18 26.8 15.3 4.2
19 M-19 22.9 16.2 8.3
20 M-20 25.1 15.9 9.7
21 M-21 22.8 12.8 4.2
22 M-22 24.2 13.6 7.2
23 M-23 23.9 10.2 6.8
24 M-24 22.5 10 2.7
25 M-25 23 15.9 3.2

30

25

20

15

10

0
M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M- M-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Ca Cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ Mg Cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ S (mg kg⁻¹)

The evaluation of secondary nutrients in soils, namely calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
sulphur (S) from non-irrigated farmland during the monsoon season reveals significant
insights into soil fertility and potential agricultural productivity.

Calcium levels range from 21.5 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample M-10 to 27.2 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in
sample M-17, indicating generally high calcium availability across most samples. The
majority of samples display calcium concentrations above 24 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹, which is
beneficial as calcium is essential for plant structure and nutrient uptake. This suggests that
the soils are well-supplied with calcium, supporting healthy crop development during the
monsoon.

193
Magnesium concentrations vary from 10.0 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample M-24 to 16.2 cmol(P+)
kg⁻¹ in sample M-19. Most samples maintain magnesium levels in the range of 12 to 15
cmol(P+) kg⁻¹, indicating sufficient availability for plant needs. Magnesium is crucial for
photosynthesis and enzyme function, and its adequate presence in the soil supports effective
plant growth.

Sulfur content in the samples shows greater variability, with values ranging from 2.5 mg
kg⁻¹ in sample M-10 to 11.5 mg kg⁻¹ in sample M-1. Several samples, including M-1, M-2,
and M-20, exhibit higher sulfur levels, while others, particularly M-6, M-9, and M-10,
display lower concentrations. The variability in sulfur availability could indicate potential
deficiencies in some areas, as sulfur is essential for protein synthesis and overall plant
metabolism.

Progress with Available S, Exchangeable Ca and Mg of Soils from Non-Irrigated

Farmland During Winter Season

Sr. No. Sample No. Ca Cmol(P+) Mg Cmol(P+) S (mg kg⁻¹)

kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹
1 W-1 28.2 15.2 12
2 W-2 27.1 16.5 9
3 W-3 25.9 15.2 10.3
4 W-4 24.7 14.5 8.5
5 W-5 25.5 14 5.2
6 W-6 24.2 15 4.7
7 W-7 26 13.2 5.3
8 W-8 26.8 14.3 4
9 W-9 25.4 12.3 3.2
10 W-10 22.6 12.1 2.6
11 W-11 26.9 16 5.1
12 W-12 25.8 15.4 4.5
13 W-13 24.1 13 3.4
14 W-14 24.6 13.4 3.5
15 W-15 25 12.5 3.6
16 W-16 26 12.7 5.4
17 W-17 28 14.7 3

194
18 W-18 27.1 16 4.8
19 W-19 23.8 17 9.2
20 W-20 25.9 16.5 11
21 W-21 23.4 13.8 5.2
22 W-22 24.9 14.1 8.5
23 W-23 24.3 11.1 7.5
24 W-24 23.1 11.3 2.8
25 W-25 23.8 16.6 3.9

195
Calcium levels across the samples range from 22.6 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in sample W-10 to 28.2
cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample W-1, indicating a generally high availability of calcium in the
soils. Most samples maintain calcium concentrations above 24 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹, which is
favorable for promoting strong plant structures and effective nutrient uptake, thereby
supporting healthy crop development during the winter season.

Magnesium levels also exhibit variability, ranging from 11.1 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in sample W-23
to 17.0 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample W-19. Many samples show magnesium levels in the range
of 12 to 16.5 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹, suggesting adequate availability for plant needs. Magnesium is
crucial for chlorophyll synthesis and overall plant metabolism, and its presence in sufficient
amounts supports optimal growth and development.

Sulfur content shows a wider range of values, from a low of 2.6 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample W-10 to
a high of 12.0 mg kg⁻¹ in sample W-1. While some samples exhibit relatively high sulfur
levels, such as W-1 and W-20, others, particularly W-10, W-9, and W-24, indicate lower
sulfur availability. This variability suggests that while some areas have sufficient sulfur for
healthy plant growth, others may require supplementation to prevent potential deficiencies,
as sulfur is essential for protein synthesis and overall plant health.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca and Mg of Soils from Irrigated Farmland

During Summer Season

Ca Cmol(P+) Mg Cmol(P+)
Sr. No. Sample No. kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹ S (mg kg⁻¹)
1 IS-1 27.2 15.7 12
2 IS-2 26.7 16.5 9.7
3 IS-3 25.9 15.8 11.3
4 IS-4 24.9 15 8.8
5 IS-5 25.7 14.3 6.7
6 IS-6 24.5 15.1 5.9
7 IS-7 26.3 13.9 6.5
8 IS-8 27.1 14 5.5
9 IS-9 25.8 12.9 4.3
10 IS-10 23.7 12.5 3.9
11 IS-11 27.4 15.7 6.9
12 IS-12 26.8 15.2 6

196
 13 IS-13 25.1 14 4.9
14 IS-14 26 14.2 5.2
15 IS-15 25.9 13.2 5.8
16 IS-16 27.2 13.6 6.8
17 IS-17 28.3 15 5.6
18 IS-18 27.8 16 7
19 IS-19 24.2 17.3 9
20 IS-20 26.5 16.7 11.5
21 IS-21 23.8 13.5 6.2
22 IS-22 25.2 14.8 8.4
23 IS-23 24.8 12 7.5
24 IS-24 23.4 12.3 4.2
25 IS-25 24.6 16.5 5.8

Calcium levels in the analyzed samples range from 23.4 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in sample IS-24 to
28.3 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IS-17. The majority of samples demonstrate calcium
concentrations above 24 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹, indicating generally high availability. Strong root
growth, easier nutrient absorption, and improved overall plant health all depend on adequate
calcium levels.

Magnesium concentrations range from 12.0 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IS-23 to 17.3
cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IS-19. Most samples contain magnesium levels in the range of 13.2

197
to 16.7 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹, suggesting that magnesium is readily available to support critical
physiological functions in plants, including chlorophyll production and enzyme activity.

Sulfur levels vary significantly among the samples, with values ranging from a low of 3.9
mg kg⁻¹ in sample IS-10 to a high of 12.0 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample IS-1. While some samples,
like IS-1 and IS-20, exhibit favorable sulfur concentrations that are adequate for plant
growth, others reflect lower availability. This variability indicates that while some areas may
have sufficient sulfur for optimal crop performance, others could be at risk of deficiency,
which could hinder protein synthesis and overall plant vigor.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca and Mg of Soils from Irrigated Farmland

During Monsoon Season

Ca Cmol(P+) Mg Cmol(P+)
Sr. No. Sample No. kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹ S (mg kg⁻¹)
1 IM-1 28.5 16 13.2
2 IM-2 27.8 17.2 10.5
3 IM-3 26.5 16.5 11.8
4 IM-4 25.3 15.7 9.6
5 IM-5 26.4 14.8 7.8
6 IM-6 25.1 15.6 6.4
7 IM-7 27 14.2 7
8 IM-8 27.5 14.5 6.3
9 IM-9 26.7 13.6 5.2
10 IM-10 23.4 13.2 4.7
11 IM-11 28 16.4 7.5
12 IM-12 27.4 15.5 6.8
13 IM-13 25.8 14.3 5.5
14 IM-14 26.2 14.7 5.8
198
 15 IM-15 26.8 13.8 6
16 IM-16 27.1 13.9 7.7
17 IM-17 29 15.2 5.8
18 IM-18 28.3 16.3 7.9
19 IM-19 24.5 17.2 10
20 IM-20 26.9 16.9 12.3
21 IM-21 24.2 14.3 7.2
22 IM-22 25.6 15.2 9.3
23 IM-23 25.1 11.8 8.4
24 IM-24 24 12 5.6
25 IM-25 24.8 16.7 6.5

Calcium concentrations in the samples range from 23.4 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in sample IM-10 to
29.0 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IM-17. Most samples exhibit calcium levels above 25
cmol(P+) kg⁻¹, reflecting adequate calcium availability, This is necessary for the growth of
roots, cell wall construction, and general plant health.

199
Magnesium levels also show a healthy range, with values from 11.8 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in
sample IM-23 to 17.2 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IM-2. The majority of samples fall within
14.2 to 17.2 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹, indicating sufficient magnesium for critical functions such as
photosynthesis and enzyme activity.

In terms of sulfur availability, the samples reveal a more varied range, with sulfur content
from a low of 4.7 mg kg⁻¹ in sample IM-10 to a high of 13.2 mg kg ⁻¹ in sample IM-1.
While some samples, particularly IM-1 and IM-20, present adequate sulfur levels for healthy
plant growth, others show lower concentrations, which may pose a risk of deficiency. Sulfur
is vital for protein synthesis and overall metabolic functions in plants, and lower availability
could impact crop productivity.

Status of Available S, Exchangeable Ca and Mg of Soils from Irrigated Farmland

During Winter Season

Ca Cmol(P+) Mg Cmol(P+)
Sr. No. Sample No. kg⁻¹ kg⁻¹ S (mg kg⁻¹)
1 IW-1 28.6 16.5 13.5
2 IW-2 27.9 17.3 10.5
3 IW-3 26.8 16.6 12
4 IW-4 25.7 15.8 9.8
5 IW-5 26.5 15 7.9
6 IW-6 25.3 15.7 6.7
7 IW-7 27.1 14.5 7.5
8 IW-8 27.9 14.8 6.5
9 IW-9 26.4 13.7 5.6
10 IW-10 24 13.3 4.8
11 IW-11 28.2 16.7 7.8

200
 12 IW-12 27.6 15.9 6.9
13 IW-13 25.9 14.7 5.6
14 IW-14 26.3 15.1 6.2
15 IW-15 26.9 14 6.5
16 IW-16 27.5 14.3 7.8
17 IW-17 29.1 15.8 5.9
18 IW-18 28.4 16.7 8.2
19 IW-19 24.7 17.5 10.5
20 IW-20 27.1 17 12.8
21 IW-21 24.5 14.7 7.5
22 IW-22 25.8 15.6 9.6
23 IW-23 25.4 12.2 8.9
24 IW-24 24.3 12.5 5.9
25 IW-25 25.2 17 6.8

The assessment of calcium, magnesium, as well as sulfur levels in irrigated farmland soils
during the winter season indicates a generally healthy nutrient profile that is essential for
optimal crop growth.

Calcium levels in the soil samples range from 24.0 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹ in sample IW-10 to 29.1
cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IW-17, with most samples exceeding 25 cmol(P+) kg ⁻¹. This

201
suggests that calcium is readily available, This is essential for root growth, cell wall
construction, and general plant health.

Magnesium concentrations range from 12.2 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IW-23 to 17.5
cmol(P+) kg⁻¹ in sample IW-19, with the majority of samples presenting values around 14
to 17 cmol(P+) kg⁻¹. This level of magnesium is important for photosynthesis and enzyme
function, indicating that crops will likely benefit from adequate magnesium availability.

Sulfur levels, however, exhibit more variability, with concentrations ranging from 4.8 mg
kg⁻¹ in sample IW-10 to 13.5 mg kg⁻¹ in sample IW-1. While some samples demonstrate
sufficient sulfur for plant health—such as IW-1 and IW-20—others, particularly those at the
lower end, may indicate potential deficiency risks. Sulfur is crucial for protein synthesis and
metabolic functions, and its lower availability in certain samples could affect crop
performance.

Correlation between water parameters and soil parameters (irrigated).

Soil parameters

Water pH EC CaCO3 OC Ca Mg S N P K Fe Cu Mn Zn
paramete
r

pH - -0.139 -0.009 0.083 - 0.21 0.088 0.265 -0.201 0.45 -0.331 0.002 0.028 0.228
0.14 0.47 5 5
1 8

EC - 0.184 - 0.129 0.23 - 0.099 0.146 0.046 - 0.303 0.017 -0.299 0.493*
0.13 0.502* 1 0.34 0.11 *
0 * 7 1

HCO3 0.15 -0.362 0.661* -0.057 - 0.67 - -0.208 - - 0.137 -0.139 0.217 -0.421
7 * 0.33 2 0.553* 0.560* 0.06
0 * * 6

Cl - 0.453 0.015 0.367 - - 0.472* 0.405* 0.290 0.35 - 0.080 -0.201 -0.124
0.32 0.33 0.33 0.587*

202
 8 8 3 9 *

SO4 - 0.326 -0.167 -0.064 0.16 - 0.293 0.075 0.174 0.13 -0.364 -0.449 -0.230 -0.085
0.23 9 0.33 0
9 4

Na - 0.211 -0.133 0.600* 0.19 0.27 0.199 0.630* 0.094 0.27 -0.015 0.386 -0.279 0.281
0.04 * 7 5 * 3 *
2

K - 0.484* 0.500* 0.399* - 0.19 0.000 0.424 -0.256 0.07 - -0.273 -0.291 -
0.25 * 0.37 0 5 0.525* 0.536*
1 9 * *

Ca - 0.688* -0.337 0.279 0.19 0.03 0.072 0.422 -0.005 0.22 -0.027 -0.202 0.007 0.367
0.17 * 4 0 6
0

Mg 0.09 -0.399* -0.056 0.072 - - 0.332 -0.076 0.202 - 0.128 0.240 - -0.006
9 0.01 0.33 0.32 0.689*
2 1 4 *

* - Signficant at 5 % level (0.3809)

** - Significant at 1% level (0.4869)

Soil and water characteristics under irrigated settings are shown in the table with their
corresponding correlation coefficients. In this table, the water-soil parameter correlation
coefficient (r) is shown in each column. where 0 indicates no relationship, 1 indicates a
completely positive correlation, and -1 indicates an extremely negative correlation,
correlation coefficients may take on values between -1 and 1. A number of associations
between soil and water characteristics are apparent from the analysis of the correlation
coefficients:

1. pH: pH values of water and soil characteristics show modest associations, with
coefficients ranging from -0.141 to 0.215. Importantly, soil calcium levels are negatively
correlated with water pH (-0.478), suggesting that higher pH water results in lower soil
calcium levels.

2. Electrical Conductivity (EC): The relationships between water's EC and soil

characteristics are somewhat variable, falling anywhere from -0.347 to 0.672. A greater

203
water EC is linked to higher levels of soil CaCO3 (0.661) and soil Na (0.600), since these
two soil elements show strong positive connections with water EC.

Thirdly, Additional Parameters: Coefficients of correlation for additional soil and water
parameters also show a variety of correlations. Soil K and water HCO3 have moderate
positive correlations of 0.493, while soil Fe and water Cl have moderate positive
correlations of 0.587, suggesting relationships between these parameters.

The interactions between water and soil factors under irrigated circumstances may be better
understood with the help of these correlation coefficients. Soil fertility, water quality, and
possible effects on agricultural output may all be better assessed with an understanding of
these interactions. To demonstrate causal linkages and understand the underlying processes
generating these correlations, more investigation is required. It is vital to highlight that
correlation does not indicate causality.

Correlation between water parameters and soil parameters (non-irrigated) .

Soil paramters
Waterpar
ameter
pH E Ca O C Mg S N P K F C M Z
C CO C a e u n n
3

pH - - 0.16 0.31 - 0.03 0.38 0.3 0.13 0.52 - 0.34 0.0 -

0.0 0. 6 3 0.15 8 0* 80 0 6** 0.45 7 93 0.4
23 14 1 * 4* 59*
6

EC 0.5 0. 0.35 0.33 0.03 0.23 - 0.4 - - - - - -

85* 36 0 1 0 8 0.37 61 0.59 0.3 0.03 0.00 0.7 0.4
* 7 3 * 3 00 7 5 79 38

HCO3 - 0. 0.14 0.35 - - 0.51 0.2 0.41 0.4 - 0.22 0.3 0.

0.0 24 7 2 0.16 0.08 5** 01 0 76* 0.32 5 60 26
53 0 3 3 3 3

Cl 0.1 0. - - 0.21 0.31 - 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.51 - -

30 27 0.06 0.05 2 0 0.23 06 0.19 32 0.07 1** 0.4 0.2
3 7 2 6 6 8 40 83
*

SO4 - - 0.05 - 0.55 - - - - - 0.50 0.26 - -

0.1 0. 8 0.15 0** 0.12 0.13 0.1 0.04 0.41 3** 7 0.1 0.0
20 22 1 2 4 94 3 5* 03 60
8

Na 0.3 0. 0.12 0.21 - - - 0.3 - 0.0 - - 0.0 0.

36 38 6 4 0.78 0.20 0.09 39 0.30 56 0.24 0.40 70 19
8 5** 7 7 4 4 0 2

K 0.0 0. 0.73 0.55 0.49 - 0.72 0.1 0.63 0.3 - 0.05 - 0.

204
 70 08 3** 9** 2** 0.55 8** 34 7** 20 0.17 1 0.0 01
1 7** 7 24 1

Ca 0.3 0. 0.25 - - - - - - - 0.1 - - 0.

25 39 4 0.12 0.12 0.49 0.23 0.2 0.21 0.2 76 0.35 0.3 02
8 5 1 5** 2 41 3 06 3 91 0
*

Mg 0.0 0. 0.43 0.45 0.29 - 0.49 0.3 0.41 0.61 - 0.62 - -

25 10 2* 2* 9 0.20 1** 07 0 3** 0.590 0 0.1 0.3
3 9 ** 21 30

*-Signficantat5% level (0.3809), (0.4869)

Certainly! Let's delve into a detailed explanation of the correlation coefficients between
water parameters and soil parameters provided in the table:

1. pH

From -0.151 to 0.380, water pH demonstrates modest associations with the majority of soil
characteristics.

greater soil organic carbon (OC) levels may be linked to greater water pH levels, according
to a somewhat positive connection between the two variables (0.313). This connection is
significant because Soil fertility and structure are significantly influenced by organic carbon,
which also affects nutrient availability and water retention. Soil exchangeable calcium (Ca)
(0.380) and magnesium (Mg) (0.380) have a positive connection with water pH (0.380),
suggesting that greater pH levels may correspond with larger concentrations of these soil
nutrients. In addition to being involved in soil structure and cation exchange capacity,
magnesium and calcium are two of the most important minerals for plant development.

2. Electrical Conductivity (EC):

There are several soil factors with which water EC has strong positive connections, This
includes calcium (0.367), magnesium (0.238), and potassium (0.733).

A greater water EC level may be linked to a higher exchangeable calcium level in the soil,
given the positive association between the two variables. In addition to its functions in plant
cell walls and nutrient absorption, calcium is essential for the structure of soil.

Similarly, because soil magnesium and water EC are positively correlated, it seems sense
that soils with greater quantities of exchangeable magnesium also have higher levels of
water EC. Magnesium, a component from chlorophyll, is needed for photosynthesis.
205
There is a substantial positive association between water EC and soil K, suggesting that soils
with greater quantities of exchangeable potassium may also have higher levels of water EC.
Enzyme activation and osmoregulation are only two of the many plant physiological
activities that rely on potassium.
3. Other Parameters

Soil potassium (K) and water bicarbonate (HCO3) have a very positive correlation of 0.476,
indicating that soils with greater exchangeable potassium levels may also have higher
bicarbonate levels in their water.

Water and soil iron (Fe) are significantly positively correlated. sulfate (SO4) (0.503),
suggesting that soils with greater iron levels may also have higher sulfate levels.
Chlorophyll production and enzyme activation are two of iron's many important functions in
plant development. All things considered, these correlation coefficients provide light on
possible connections between soil and water characteristics, demonstrating how
interdependent soil and water quality are in agricultural settings. Optimizing soil fertility,
nutrient availability, and crop yield while guaranteeing environmental sustainability may be
achieved via informed water and soil management methods that are based on an
understanding of these interactions.

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion

Seasonal Soil Characteristics and Climate Impacts

The soils of Maharashtra's Vidarbha region's Yavatmal district, India, exhibit distinct
characteristics influenced by the area's climatic conditions, which vary significantly across
206
the monsoon, winter, and summer seasons. During the monsoon, The soils' pH ranges from
6.94 to 7.96, causing them to be mildly acidic to neutral. These properties contribute to high
porosity and water retention, essential for the growth of crops like paddy, soybean, and
chickpea. However, the heavy rainfall characteristic of the monsoon season poses a
challenge. The high porosity of the soil leads to nitrogen leaching, which can reduce the
availability of this crucial nutrient for crops, impacting overall productivity. Winter brings a
marked change in soil properties, with pH levels transitioning to neutral or slightly alkaline
values ranging from 7.21 to 7.93. The soil structure becomes more stable, and moisture loss
is significantly reduced. These conditions create an environment conducive to cultivating
crops like wheat and chickpea, which thrive in moderately saline and well-aerated soils.
These crops are particularly well-suited to the region's winter climate, as they require less
water and benefit from the stable soil conditions.
The high temperatures typical of the region lead to the drying and compaction of soils. This
seasonal shift affects nutrient uptake, with compact soils restricting root penetration and
access to essential nutrients. However, slightly alkaline soils with adequate organic carbon
content continue to support drought-resistant crops like sorghum and cotton. These crops
utilize residual soil fertility effectively, ensuring that farmers can still achieve yields despite
the challenging conditions. Understanding these seasonal dynamics is critical for
implementing effective agricultural practices tailored to the specific needs of each season.

Yavatmal district, situated in Maharashtra's Vidarbha area, comprises 16 talukas, each

exhibiting unique soil characteristics that significantly impact agricultural productivity. The
district’s soils can be broadly categorized into black cotton soil, lateritic soil, sandy loam,
and alluvial soil. Black cotton soil, known for its high moisture retention and fertility,
dominates several talukas, making it highly suitable for cotton and soybean cultivation.
Lateritic soils, found in some parts of the district, are well-drained and moderately fertile,
favoring the cultivation of pulses and millets. Sandy loam soils, though less moisture-
retentive, provide good drainage, which benefits crops like maize and groundnut. The
diverse soil profile of Yavatmal influences cropping patterns and agricultural planning, as
each taluka's unique soil composition dictates the most suitable crops for optimal yield and
sustainability.
The talukas of Yavatmal district demonstrate variations in soil fertility and texture, which
play a crucial role in determining agricultural suitability. Talukas such as Yavatmal,
Ghatanji, and Wani are characterized by deep black soil, which is rich in organic carbon and

207
retains moisture effectively. These regions are highly suitable for cotton and soybean
cultivation, contributing significantly to the district’s agrarian economy. Pusad and Darwha
talukas, with their black cotton and loamy soils, support the cultivation of wheat and tur due
to their high water retention capacity. In contrast, Umarkhed and Zari Jamani talukas, with
their lateritic and red soils, are better suited for sorghum, pearl millet, and horticultural crops
due to their moderate fertility and drainage properties. Sandy loam soils found in Maregaon
and Kelapur talukas provide excellent drainage, making them ideal for maize, groundnut,
and pulses. Meanwhile, the alluvial and clayey soils in talukas such as Arni and Babhulgaon,
With their considerable porosity and water retention capacity, favor the cultivation of
sugarcane, paddy, and chickpea. These variations necessitate region-specific agricultural
planning to maximize productivity and soil sustainability.

Given the diverse soil characteristics across Yavatmal district, a strategic approach to
agriculture planning is essential for maximizing productivity while ensuring sustainability.
The predominance of black cotton soil in multiple talukas highlights the district’s
dependence on cotton and soybean farming, making it imperative to incorporate crop
rotation and soil conservation techniques to maintain long-term soil health. Regions with
lateritic and sandy loam soils require targeted irrigation and nutrient management strategies
to enhance fertility and water retention. Talukas with high organic carbon and clayey soils,
such as Ner and Kalamb, benefit from integrated farming systems that include intercropping
and organic amendments to improve soil structure. To further optimise soil health
throughout the area, sustainable farming methods including bio-fertilizer usage, effective
water management, and low tillage may be used. By aligning crop choices with soil
properties and employing adaptive farming techniques, Yavatmal can provide food security
and increase agricultural output., and support farmers in achieving long-term economic
stability.

The analysis of physico-chemical soil properties across irrigated and non-irrigated farmlands
in Yavatmal reveals a diverse range of characteristics that influence agricultural practices.
Bulk density, which ranges from 1.34 to 1.61 Mg m⁻³, and porosity, varying from 46.76% to
55.53%, play critical roles in determining root penetration and water retention capabilities.
The soil texture, which spans from clayey to sandy clay loam, further influences water
drainage and aeration, key factors in crop health and productivity. Chemical properties,
including soil pH values between 6.94 and 7.96, provide optimal conditions for the growth
of crops such as soybean and chickpea. However, the low organic carbon levels observed
208
(ranging from 0.24% to 0.99%) indicate a need for organic amendments to improve soil
fertility. Macronutrient analysis reveals generally low nitrogen levels, varying from 33.40 to
201.30 kg/ha, moderate phosphorus levels, and sufficient potassium availability. This
imbalance necessitates tailored fertilization strategies to ensure optimal nutrient supply for
different crops.

Recommendations based on these findings include the inclusion of organic materials like
green manure or compost, to enhance organic carbon content. Balanced fertilization
practices, incorporating both macro and micronutrients, can address specific soil
deficiencies. Improved irrigation practices and the implementation of crop rotation strategies
can further enhance soil fertility and sustainability. These measures, when applied
systematically, possess the capacity to greatly enhance Yavatmal's soils' long-term health
and production.

The research offers farmers useful insights by determining crop appropriateness based on
the interplay of soil characteristics and weather [Link] Babhulgaon, chickpea
thrives due to its nitrogen-fixing ability and adaptability to semi-arid conditions. The
region’s soil properties, particularly its clayey texture and high porosity, align well with the
needs of this leguminous crop. Sorghum also performs well in Babhulgaon, benefiting from
its drought tolerance and ability to utilize residual soil fertility effectively. In Ner, Because
well-drained soils and significant levels of organic carbon are present, wheat performs very
well. The region’s soils are also ideal for soybean cultivation, supported by balanced pH
levels and nutrient enrichment. The adaptability of soybean to different soil conditions and
its nitrogen-fixing properties make it a valuable crop for Ner.

Kalamb’s soils, with their high The amount of calcium carbonate and the ability to exchange
ions are

well-suited for cotton and soybean cultivation. Cotton benefits from the clayey soil structure
and its resilience to varying moisture levels, while soybean thrives due to the nutrient-
retaining properties of Kalamb’s soils. In these areas, using crop rotation and intercropping
techniques may naturally restore soil nutrients and lower insect populations, and maximize
productivity, ensuring sustainable agricultural outcomes.

The comprehensive soil analysis conducted across Yavatmal district underscores the
importance of tailored agricultural practices for optimizing land use and improving crop
yields. The unique soil and climatic conditions of each village necessitate localized
209
strategies to address specific agricultural challenges. Regular soil testing emerges as a
critical practice for monitoring soil health and identifying nutrient deficiencies. This practice
enables farmers to adopt targeted interventions, such as balanced fertilization and the
integration of organic amendments, to improve soil fertility. The study also highlights the
role of legumes, such as chickpea and soybean, in enhancing soil health through nitrogen
fixation. Incorporating these crops into cropping systems can significantly reduce the
dependency on chemical fertilizers and promote sustainable agriculture. Improved irrigation
practices, including the use of efficient water management systems, can mitigate seasonal
challenges related to water availability and soil moisture retention.

Enhanced pest management strategies are recommended to address crop-specific pest issues
and reduce yield losses. By aligning agricultural practices with the specific needs of each
region, farmers in Yavatmal district can achieve long-term sustainability and economic
viability. The integration of traditional knowledge with modern agricultural technologies can
further enhance productivity and ensure resilience against climatic and soil-related
challenges.

The diverse soil properties and climatic conditions of Yavatmal district present both
opportunities and challenges for agriculture. By adopting sustainable practices and
leveraging the unique potential of each village, farmers can optimize productivity, maintain
soil health, and support the region's overall agricultural sustainability.

5.2 Recommendations
 Soil Health Improvement – Regular soil testing should be encouraged to monitor
nutrient levels and soil health, enabling farmers to apply appropriate fertilizers and
organic amendments.
 Balanced Fertilization – To improve soil fertility, integrated nutrient management
using compost, organic manure, and balanced chemical fertilisers should be
encouraged.
 and sustain productivity.
 Soil Conservation Techniques – Measures like contour plowing, mulching, and
cover cropping needed to stop dirt from washing away and improve moisture
retention.
 Crop Rotation and Diversification – Rotating crops like legumes, pulses, and
oilseeds with staple crops can enhance soil fertility, reduce pests, and maintain

210
 ecological balance.
 Water Management Strategies – Drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and efficient
water use practices should be adopted to optimize water availability, especially in
water-scarce talukas.
 Climate-Resilient Crops – Farmers should be encouraged to cultivate drought-
resistant crops such as sorghum, pearl millet, and cotton in regions with low moisture
retention.
 Precision Agriculture – Geospatial information systems (GIS) and remote sensing
have the potential to revolutionise land use efficiency via precision farming and soil
mapping.
 Organic Farming Practices – encouraging the use of green manure, biofertilizers,
and
 natural pest control methods can help maintain long-term soil sustainability.
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) – Crop rotation, resistant cultivars, and
biological control are examples of sustainable pest management techniques should
be employed to minimize crop losses.
 Government Support and Awareness Programs – Farmers should be provided
with technical training and financial incentives to adopt sustainable farming practices
and improve productivity.
 Agroforestry and Horticulture – Integrating agroforestry with traditional cropping
systems may provide new revenue streams, stop erosion, and enhance soil health.
 Infrastructure Development – Investments in better road connectivity, storage
facilities, by connecting them to markets, farmers may sell their goods at a
reasonable price.
 Use of Digital Platforms – Encouraging farmers to use mobile applications and
digital platforms for weather forecasting, soil health updates, and market trends can
enhance decision-making.
 Sustainable Land Management – Implementing measures such as zero tillage and
conservation agriculture can stop soil erosion and keep production levels high over
the long haul.

5.3 Future Scope

The research underscores the need for ongoing investigation into the interplay of soil
characteristics, climate variables, and agricultural yield in Yavatmal area. Future research
211
may concentrate on creating predictive soil fertility models using artificial intelligence and
machine learning to provide accurate suggestions for farmers. Expanding GIS-based soil
mapping to all talukas can facilitate more region-specific agricultural planning. The
integration of climate-smart agriculture techniques, including carbon sequestration methods
and regenerative farming, can further enhance soil sustainability. Furthermore, longitudinal
research on organic agriculture practices and their impact on soil productivity and health
would be beneficial.

The promotion of sustainable irrigation systems, such as micro-irrigation and water-efficient

farming, will be critical in addressing water scarcity challenges. Strengthening farmer
education through digital platforms and government extension programs can help in the
adoption of innovative techniques. Moreover, policy-level interventions focusing on soil
conservation, agroforestry, and subsidy-based incentives for sustainable farming can further
boost agricultural resilience in Yavatmal district. These future initiatives will play a vital
role in ensuring sustainable agricultural growth, improving farmers’ livelihoods, and
enhancing food security in the region.

212
 REFERENCES
1. Maury, S., Gholkar, M., Jadhav, A., & Rane, N. (2019). Geophysical evaluation of
soils and soil loss estimation in a semiarid region of Maharashtra using revised
universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) and GIS methods. Environmental Earth
Sciences, 78(5). [Link]
2. Sahu, N., Reddy, G. P. O., Kumar, N., & Nagaraju, M. S. S. (2015). High resolution
remote sensing, GPS and GIS in soil resource mapping and characterization-A
Review. Agricultural Reviews, 36(1), 14. [Link]
0741.2015.00002.1
3. Dukare, I., & Kadam, A. (2016). Physico-Chemical Assessment of Agriculture soils
at Basmath Tahsil of Hingoli district in Maharashtra. September.
4. Chadar, B., Vaidya, H., Kachave, R., & Aundhkar, V. (2018). Characterizations,
classifications and soil site suitability evaluation of soils of farm College of
Agriculture, Latur, Maharashtra. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry,
166–170. [Link]
[Link]
5. Bagdi, G. L., & Kurothe, R. S. (2014). People’s participation in watershed
management programmes: Evaluation study of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra in
India. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 2(3), 57–66.
[Link]
6. B.P. Bhaskar1*, Sunil Maske2, S.S. Gaikwad1, A. Chaturvedi3, Jagdish Prasad1, S.
G. A. and S. K. S. (2017). Soil and land resource evaluation for rural agricultural
land use planning - A case study from hot semiarid ecosystem of Western India.
Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 2(3), 206–218.
7. Bhaskar, B. P., Maske, S., Ramesh Kumar, S. C., Srinivas, S., & Hegde, R. (2018).
Agropedological Approach for Rural Land Use Planning – A Case Study from
Lagadwal Village, Dhule District, Maharashtra, India. International Journal of
Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(2), 2528–2541.
[Link]
8. Mahajan, M. S., Patil, N. G., Chaturvedi, A., Bhaskar, B. P., Hajare, T. N.,
Deshmukh, S., Dubey, P. N., & Singh, S. K. (2015). Development of efficient
farming systems through land use planning in Dhule district, Maharashtra, India.
Agropedology, 25(1), 110–124. [Link]

213
9. Bhaskar, B. P., Sarkar, D., Bobade, S. V, Gaikwad, S. S., & Anantwar, S. G. (2014).
Land Evaluation for Irrigation in Cotton Growing Yavatmal District, Maharashtra.
International Journal of Research in Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 2348–3997.
10. Karthik, M., Suri, J., Saharan, N., & Biradar, R. S. (2005). Brackish water
aquaculture site selection in Palghar Taluk, Thane district of Maharashtra, India,
using the techniques of remote sensing and geographical information system.
Aquacultural Engineering, 32(2), 285–302.
[Link]
11. Coopersmith, E. J., Minsker, B. S., Wenzel, C. E., & Gilmore, B. J. (2014). Machine
learning assessments of soil drying for agricultural planning. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 104, 93–104.
[Link]
12. Ouyang, W., Wu, Y., Hao, Z., Zhang, Q., Bu, Q., & Gao, X. (2018). Combined
impacts of land use and soil property changes on soil erosion in a mollisol area under
long-term agricultural development. Science of the Total Environment, 613–614,
798–809. [Link]
13. Polidoro, J. C., de Freitas, P. L., Hernani, L. C., Anjos, L. H. C. dos, Rodrigues, R.
de A. R., Cesário, F. V., Andrade, A. G. de, & Ribeiro, J. L. (2021). Potential impact
of plans and policies based on the principles of conservation agriculture on the
control of soil erosion in Brazil. Land Degradation and Development, 32(12), 3457–
3468. [Link]
14. Reza, S. K., Nayak, D. C., Mukhopadhyay, S., Chattopadhyay, T., & Singh, S. K.
(2017). Characterizing spatial variability of soil properties in alluvial soils of India
using geostatistics and geographical information system. Archives of Agronomy and
Soil Science, 63(11), 1489–1498. [Link]
15. Selim, M. M. (2020). Introduction to the Integrated Nutrient Management Strategies
and Their Contribution to Yield and Soil Properties. International Journal of
Agronomy, 2020. [Link]
16. Solanki, A. S., Jadhao, S. M., Shirolkar, T. A., Kiran, S., Kale, S. P., & Yadav, J.
(2021). Effect of ground water quality on soil characteristics in Pentakali command
area of Buldhana district of Maharashtra. 10(8), 630–636.
17. Walke, N., Obi Reddy, G. P., Maji, A. K., & Thayalan, S. (2012). GIS-based
multicriteria overlay analysis in soil-suitability evaluation for cotton (Gossypium

214
 spp.): A case study in the black soil region of Central India. Computers and
Geosciences, 41(January), 108–118. [Link]
18. Raczkowski, C. W., Mueller, J. P., Busscher, W. J., Bell, M. C., & Mcgraw, M. L.
(2012). Soil physical properties of agricultural systems in a large-scale study. Soil &
Tillage Research, 119, 50–59. [Link]
19. Todkari, G. U., Suryawanshi, S. P., Suryawanshi, M. V, & Patil, B. D. (2010).
Agriculture Landuse Pattern in Solapur District of Maharashtra. 2(2), 1–8.
20. Singha, C., & Swain, K. C. (2016). Land suitability evaluation criteria for
agricultural crop selection : A review. 37(2), 125–132.
[Link]
21. Niemiec, M., Chowaniak, M., Sikora, J., & Komorowska, M. (2020). Selected
Properties of Soils for Long-Term Use in Organic Farming. 1–10.
22. Bautista, F. (2021). geostatistical analysis of soil properties of the karstic sub-
horizontal plain of the yucatan peninsula. 24, 1–11.
23. West, L. T., Tugel, A. J., Wills, S. A., Stiles, C. A., & Hipple, K. (2010). Soil survey
and inventory of dynamic soil properties in the [Link], 90–93.
24. Mcbratney, A. B., & Pringle, M. J. (2006). Estimating Average and Proportional
Variograms of Soil Properties and Their Potential Use in Precision Agriculture. 125–
152.
25. Antonio, L., Zavala-cruz, J., & Jes, D. (2022). Digital Mapping of Soil Profile
Properties for Precision Agriculture in Developing Countries. 1–13.
26. Watershed, K., District, Y., Patangray, A. J., Patil, N. G., Singh, S. K., & Tiwari, P.
(2023). Soil Suitability Evaluation of Major Crops for Sustainable Land Use
Planning in Soil Suitability Evaluation of Major Crops for Sustainable Land Use
Planning in Kupti Watershed , Yavatmal District , Maharashtra. June 2019.
[Link]
27. Orewole, O. (n.d.). Assessment of changes in selected soil properties under different
land use in obafemi awolowo university. 1178–1184.
28. Denton, O. A., Ojo, A. O., Adeoyolanu, O. D., Are, K. S., Adelana, A. O., Oyedele,
A. O., Adetayo, A. O., Oke, A. O., Ojo, A. O., & Adeoyolanu, O. D. (2017).
Assessment of spatial variability and mapping of soil properties for sustainable
agricultural production using geographic information system techniques ( GIS )
1932. [Link]

215
29. A, P. G., B, W. W., A, H. L., & A, M. L. (2011). Effects of land use and
topographical attributes on soil properties in an agricultural landscape. 606–613.
30. L, R. (2008). Soils and sustainable agriculture . A review. 28, 57–64.
31. Ma, Y., Minasny, B., & Wu, C. (2017). Modelling and mapping of key soil
properties to support agricultural production in Eastern China. Geoderma Regional.
[Link]
32. Gama, J. T. da. (2023). the Role of Soils in Sustainability, Climate Change, and
Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities. [Link]
4133/4/3/36
33. Swathi, J., & Rani, V. (2019). Soil Property Mapping of Kazhakuttam Ward using
Geographic Information System ( GIS ). 2902–2907.
34. Cagliarini, A., & Rush, A. (2011). Economic Development and Agriculture in India.
15–22.
35. Watershed, K., District, Y., Patangray, A. J., Patil, N. G., Singh, S. K., & Tiwari, P.
(2023). Soil Suitability Evaluation of Major Crops for Sustainable Land Use
Planning in Soil Suitability Evaluation of Major Crops for Sustainable Land Use
Planning in Kupti Watershed , Yavatmal District, Maharashtra. May.
[Link]

36. Tupe, S., & Joshi, V. (2020). Agricultural Trends in Yavatmal Maharashtra - A
District Level Analysis. 7(June), 45–49. [Link]
8159.01.2020.7

37. Wasupiyush, A., & M, G. S. (2019). Soil Fertility and Its Consequences for Vidarbha
Region. 7661–7664. [Link]

38. Mandal, U. K. (1998). Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Relation to

Conservation of Natural Resources. i, 7–18.

39. S, A. K. (2022). Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Relation to Plant Growth.
May, 6–9.

40. Cianfrani, C., Buri, A., Id, E. V., & Guisan, A. (2018). Generalizing soil properties
in geographic space : Approaches used and ways forward. 1–17.

216
41. Sawant, B., & Krishi, K. (2019). Distribution of nutrients in different soil types in
Konkan region of Maharashtra. January 2018.

42. Toor, G. S. (2017). The Composition of Soils and Sediments. November, 2017–
2018. [Link]

43. Wheeler, D. M. (2018). Characteristics of soils. June.

44. Mandal, U. K. (1998). Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Relation to

Conservation of Natural Resources. i, 7–18.

45. Cardín, M. (2008). Model for agricultural production planning. July, 58–70.

46. Zimmerer, K. S. (2020). Geography and the Study of Human – Environment

Relations. March 2017. [Link]

47. Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Geological Mapping Procedures. April 2007.

[Link]

217