AAE 344: AEROSPACE ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2

UNITS R
Principles of heat and mass transfer, problems in conduction, convection and
radiation heat transfer and mass transfer. Combustion thermodynamics. Second
Law of Thermodynamics. Entropy. Laminar and turbulent flow processes, boiling
and condensation, heat exchangers. Chemical thermodynamics, and chemical
kinetics. Scaling laws, energy budget for aerospace and space systems.
COURSE CONTENT OR OUTLINES
TOPICS
WEEKS
1: Principles of heat and mass transfer 1-2
2: problems in conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer and mass
transfer 3
3: Combustion thermodynamics. Second Law of Thermodynamics. Entropy.
4
4: Laminar and turbulent flow processes, boiling and condensation, heat
exchangers 5-6
5. Continuous Assessment Test 1
7
6: Chemical thermodynamics, and chemical kinetics
8-9
7: Scaling laws, energy budget for aerospace and space systems. 10-11
8: Continuous Assessment Test 2 12

METHOD OF GRADING
Continuous Assessment Test 1 - 15%
Continuous Assessment Test 2 (Mid-Semester Examination) - 15%
End of Semester Examination - 70%
 AAE 344: PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS
PRINCIPLES OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
BASIC MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Introduction
▪ Heat is fundamentally transported, or “moved,” by a temperature gradient; it
flows or is transferred from a high temperature region to a low temperature
one.
▪ Perfect understanding of this process and its different mechanisms requires
you to connect principles of thermodynamics and fluid flow with those of
heat transfer.
▪ Energy is transferred whenever a temperature gradient exists within a system,
or whenever two systems at different temperatures are brought into contact.
▪ The process by which the energy transported is known as heat transfer.
▪ Heat is the energy in transit or motion, cannot be observed or measured
directly.
▪ However, its effects can be identified and quantified through measurements
and analysis.
▪ Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the relation between
heat and other forms of energy, including mechanical work in particular.
▪ Its principles such as all laws of nature, are based on observations and have
been generalized into laws that are believed to hold for all processes occurring
in nature because no exceptions have ever been found.
▪ For example, the first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither
created nor destroyed but only changed from one form to another. It governs
all energy transformations quantitatively, but places no restrictions on the
direction of the transformation.
▪ Also from the second law, it is known, however, from experience that no
process is possible whose sole result is the net transfer of heat from a region
of lower temperature to a region of higher temperature.
▪ All heat transfer processes involve the exchange and/or conversion of energy.
They must, therefore, obey the first as well as the second law of
thermodynamics.
▪ At first glance, one might therefore be tempted to assume that the principles
of heat transfer can be derived from the basic laws of thermodynamics. This
conclusion, however, would be erroneous, because classical thermodynamics
is restricted primarily to the study of equilibrium states including mechanical,
chemical, and thermal equilibriums, and is therefore, by itself, of little help in
determining quantitavely the transformations that occur from a lack of
equilibrium in engineering processes. Since heat flow is the result of
temperature nonequilibriuin, its quantitative treatment must be based on other
branches of science. The same reasoning applies to other types of transport
processes such as mass transfer and diffusion.
Engineering Heat Transfer
From an engineering viewpoint, the key challenge is the determination of the rate
of heat transfer at a specified temperature difference.

Fig. 1: heat transfer model of a typical automobile (spark-ignition internal

combustion) engine.
▪ To estimate the cost, the feasibility, and the size of equipment necessary to
transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time, a detailed heat transfer
analysis must be made.
▪ The dimensions of boilers, heaters, refrigerators, and heat exchangers
depends not only on the amount of heat to be transmitted but also on the rate at
which the heat is to be transferred under given conditions.
▪ The successful operation of equipment components such as turbine blades,
or the walls of combustion chambers, depends on the possibility of cooling certain
metal parts by continuously removing heat from a surface at a rapid rate.
▪ A heat transfer analysis must also be made in the design of electric
machines, transformers, and bearings to avoid conditions that will cause
overheating and damage the equipment.

MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer generally recognizes three distinct modes of heat transmission:
1. Conduction,
2. Convection, and
3. Radiation

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions
between the particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
 • E.g. A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example, eventually warms up
to the room temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the drink
through the aluminum can by conduction.
• For a temperature gradient that exists in a solid medium, heat will flow from
the higher-temperature to the lower-temperature region.
▪ The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, qk, is proportional to the
temperature gradient times the area A through which heat is transferred:

1
T(x) is the local temperature and x is the distance in the direction of the heat flow.
▪ The actual rate of heat flow depends on the thermal conductivity k, which
is a physical property of the medium. For conduction through a
homogeneous medium, the rate of heat transfer is then

2
The minus sign is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics,
which requires that heat must flow in the direction from higher to lower
temperature. Equation (2) defines the thermal conductivity. It is called
Fourier’s law of conduction in honour of the French scientist J. B. J.
Fourier, who proposed it in 1822.

Table 1: Various thermal conductivities of materials and substances

PLANE WALLS
For a steady-state one-dimensional heat flow through a plane wall, the
temperature gradient and the heat flow do not vary with time and the cross-
sectional area along the heat flow path is uniform. The variables in Eq. (1) can
then be separated, and the resulting equation is

The limits of integration can be checked by inspection of Fig. 2, where the

temperature at the left face is uniform at Thot and the temperature at the right face
is uniform at Tcold.
Fig. 2: Temperature distribution for steady state conduction through a
plane wall

If k is independent of T, we obtain, after integration, the following expression for

the rate of heat conduction through the wall:

3
AT, the difference between the higher temperature Thot and the lower temperature
Tcold is the driving potential that causes the flow of heat.
The thermal resistance Rk that the wall offers to the flow of heat by conduction:

4
The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is referred to as the thermal
conductance Kk, defined by
 5
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
• different materials store heat differently,
• The property specific heat cp as a measure of a material’s ability to
store thermal energy. E.g. cp 5 4.18 kJ/kg·°C for water and cp 5 0.45
kJ/kg·°C for iron at room temperature, which indicates that water can store
almost 10 times the energy that iron can per unit mass.
• The thermal conductivity k is a measure of a material’s ability to
conduct heat. E.g k=0.607 W/m·K for water and k = 80.2 W/m·K for iron
at room temperature, which indicates that iron conducts heat more than 100
times faster than water can. Thus, we say that water is a poor heat
conductor relative to iron, although water is an excellent medium to store
thermal energy
According to Fourier’s law, Eq. (2), the thermal conductivity is defined as

Tables 2: The thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature

WORKED EXAMPLES 1
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick,
and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k =0.8
W/m·K . The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one
night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of
that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

SOLUTION The inner and outer surfaces of the flat concrete roof of an
electrically heated home are maintained at specified temperatures during a night.
The heat loss through the roof and its cost that night are to be determined.
Assumptions
1 Steady operating conditions exist during the entire night since the surface
temperatures of the roof remain constant at the specified values.
2 Constant properties can be used for the roof.
The heat transfer through the roof is by conduction and the area of the roof is A
=6 m * 8 m =48 m2, the steady rate of heat transfer through the roof is

(b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10-hour period and its cost
is
*
Q = Q t
= (1.69kW )(10h) = 16.9kJ
The cost = (amount of energy) (unit cost of energy)
=16.9*($0.08) = $1.35

THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
• The thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit volume.
• Heat capacity of a material is the product of density and specific heat capacity
( ).
• Both the specific heat cp and the heat capacity represent the heat storage
capability of a material. But cp expresses it per unit mass whereas
expresses it per unit volume, as can be noticed from their units J/kg·K and
J/m3·K, respectively.
• Thermal diffusivity, which represents how fast heat diffuses through a
material and is defined as
 6
A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity. The larger the thermal diffusivity, the
faster the propagation of heat into the medium. A small value of thermal
diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount
of heat is conducted further.

WORKED EXAMPLES 2
A common way of measuring the thermal conductivity of a material is to
sandwich an electric thermo foil heater between two identical samples of the
material, the thickness of the resistance heater, including its cover, which is made
of thin silicon rubber, is usually less than 0.5 mm. A circulating fluid such as tap
water keeps the exposed ends of the samples at constant temperature. The lateral
surfaces of the samples are well insulated to ensure that heat transfer through the
samples is one-dimensional. Two thermocouples are embedded into each sample
some distance L apart, and a differential thermometer reads the temperature drop
∆T across this distance along each sample. When steady operating conditions are
reached, the total rate of heat transfer through both samples becomes equal to the
electric power drawn by the heater. In a certain experiment, cylindrical samples
of diameter 5 cm and length 10 cm are used. The two thermocouples in each
sample are placed 3 cm apart. After initial transients, the electric heater is
observed to draw 0.4 A at 110 V, and both differential thermometers read a
temperature difference of 15°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of the
sample.
SOLUTION
Applying one-dimensional heat conduction, and by measuring temperatures
when steady operating conditions are reached and
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist since the temperature readings
do not change with time. 2 Heat losses through the lateral surfaces of the
apparatus are negligible since those surfaces are well insulated, and thus the entire
heat generated by the heater is conducted through the samples.
3 The apparatus possesses thermal symmetry.
Analysis The electrical power consumed by the resistance heater and converted
to heat is

Since only half of the heat generated flows through each sample because of
symmetry. Reading the same temperature difference across the same distance in
each sample also confirms that the apparatus possesses thermal symmetry.
The heat transfer area is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer, which is
the cross-sectional area of the cylinder in this case:

Noting that the temperature drops by 15°C within 3 cm in the direction of heat
flow, the thermal conductivity of the sample is determined to be

OTHER WORKED EXERCISES

1. The inner surface of furnace wall is at 2000C and outer surface at 500C.
Calculate the heat lost per m2 area of the wall. If thermal conductivity of
the brick is 0.5 W/m0C & the wall thickness is 200mm.
2. The wall of a boiler is made up of 250mm of the brick, KFB = 1.05 W/m K;
120 mm of insulation brick KIB = 0.15 W/mK, and 200 mm of red brick,
KRB= 0.85 W/m K. The inner and outer surface temperatures of the wall
are 8500C and 650C respectively. Calculate the temperatures at the contact
surfaces.
3. A furnace wall 200 mm thick is made of a material having thermal
conductivity of 1.45 W/m. K. The inner and outer surface are exposed to
average temperatures of 3500C and 400C respectively. If the gas and air
film coefficients are 58 and 11.63 W/m2 K respectively, find the rate of
heat transfer through a wall of 2.5 square meters. Also, find the
temperatures on the two sides of the wall.
4. A steam pipe of inner diameter 200 mm is covered with 50mm thick high
insulated material of thermal conductivity k = 0.01 W/m0C. The inner and
outer surface temperatures maintained at 5000C and 1000C respectively.
Calculate the total heat loss per meter length of pipe?
5. The temperature on the two surfaces of a 1000 mm thick steel plate, (k=50
W/moC) having a uniform volumetric heat generation of 20 x 103 W/m3,
are 300oC and 200oC. Determine the following: i) the temperature
distribution across the plate ii) the value and position of the maximum
temperature, and iii) the flow of heat from each surface of the plate.