Republic of the Philippines SECTION: BSCE - 2A
SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture DATE SUBMITTED:
Bibincahan Baribag, Sorsogon City 05/06/2025
Tel. No.: (056) 211 0178
GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS
(2nd Semester A.Y. 2024 - 2025)
Group Members: Group Number: 8
Javier, Alfie
Levantino, Trixie V.
Rock Mechanics
(Written Report)
ROCK MECHANICS
Theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock and rock masses;
compared to geology, it is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with the response of rock
and rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment.
Physical and Mechanical Properties of rocks
Engineering properties of rocks encompass characteristics essential for their application in
engineering projects, whether extracted from natural beds or left in [Link] first set include all
those properties for which a rock must be tested for selection as a material for construction such
as a building stone, road stone or aggregate for concrete making. The second set of the properties
include the qualities of a natural bedrock as and where it [Link] ensure safety and
cost-effectiveness in engineering projects, a comprehensive assessment combining laboratory
testing, empirical analysis, and field observations is essential for accurately determining the
engineering properties of rocks.
Physical Properties of Rocks
The physical properties of rocks define their fundamental characteristics, including composition
and environmental interactions. In most of the engineering applications, rocks are used as
building stones. The following physical properties are considered to be important for a rock to be
used as a building material.
1. Density
2. Porosity
3. Permeability
4. Water Absorption value
Density
➢ It is defined as weight per unit volume of a substance.
3 Types of Density That May be, Distinguished in Rocks
● Dry Density
➢ It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried rock specimen, it includes
the volume of the pore spaces present in the rock.
● Bulk Density
➢ It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with natural moisture content
where pores are only partially filled with water.
➢ Bulk density values in gram/cubic cm for some common building stones are
granite-2.7, basalt-2.9, and sandstone-2.6.
● Saturated Density
➢ It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight per unit volume of a rock in
which all the pores are completely filled with water.
Porosity
➢ The percentage of void spaces within a rock.
➢ Higher porosity signifies a lesser density which generally means a lesser compressive
strength.
➢ The shape, size and nature of packing of the grains of a rock give rise to the property of
porosity or development of pore spaces within a rock.
➢ Numerically it is expressed as the ratio between the total volume of pore spaces and the
total volume of the rock sample.
➢ Porosity values for a few common building stones. Granite-0.1 to 0.5%, Basalt- 0.1 to
1%, Sandstone-5 to 25%, Limestone-5 to 20%, Marble- 0.5 to 2%, Quartzite- 0.1 to
0.5%.
Permeability
➢ It is the capacity of a rock to transmit water.
➢ Presence of water within the pores not only decreases the strength of the rock but also
makes the stones very vulnerable to frost action, in cold and humid climatic conditions.
Water Absorption / Absorption Value
➢ It defines the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72 hours
or till it gets full saturation.
➢ Generally expressed in percentage terms of original dry weight of the mass.
➢ Absorption Value = [(Ws -W0) / (W)] x100
Where Ws weight at saturation; W0 dry weight of the sample used.
Mechanical Properties of Rocks
Mechanical properties of rocks are those properties which show the mechanical behaviour of the
rocks and are related to its strength.
● Compressive Strength
● Tensile Strength
● Elastic Modulus
● Abrasive Resistance
● Hardness and Toughness
Compressive Strength / Crushing Strength
➢ Defined as maximum force expressed per unit area which a stone can withstand.
➢ Any force beyond the compression strength will cause a failure of the stone.
Co = P/A
Where Compressive strength, P = Load at failure, A = Area of cross section of stone
under P.
➢ Unconfined or Universal Compressive Strength
-Specimens are then loaded gradually one at a time after placing on the base plate of a
universal testing machine, till the first crack appears in the specimen.
➢ Confined or Triaxial Compressive Strength
-When the compressive strength is tested by a method providing lateral support, as by
keeping the specimen in a special cell filled with a liquid under pressure.
➢ The compressive strengths of some rocks and their range are as follows:
Dolerite-1500-3500 Kg/cm²,
Basalt 1500-3500 Kg/cm²,
Quartzite-1500-300 Kg/cm²,
Granite 1000-2500 Kg/cm²,
Marbles-700-2000 Kg/cm²,
Sand Stone-200-2500 Kg/cm².
Flexible Strength or Elastic Modulus Properties of Rocks
➢ Elasticity of rocks indicates their deformation under loads.
➢ Deformation is recovered when loads are removed.
➢ It is determined in accordance with Hook's law which states that in elastic substances
stress is directly proportional to strain.
E=Q/E
Where Q = stress, E = Strain, E = Modulus of elasticity, It is also termed as young's
modulus.
Tensile Strength
➢ Refers to the ability of rocks to withstand breakage.
➢ Tensile strength represents the rock’s resistance to forces pulling it apart.
➢ Rocks generally have low tensile strength compared to compressive strength.
➢ It determines how well a rock can endure stretching forces without cracking.
Brazilian Test
➢ Consists of loading a test cylinder diametrically in such a way that the applied loads
would develop tensile rupturing along the diametrical plane of the specimen. -Loads are
gradually increased till the cylinder fractures.
➢ The load P, at rupture being thus known. Transverse strength Ts is calculated by using the
formula:
Ts = (2P/µDL)
D= diameter of the specimen; L = length of the specimen
Abrasive Resistance
➢ The ability of a rock to resist wear and surface degradation caused by friction or
mechanical action.
➢ It is vital in selecting rocks for use in roads, pavements, and construction where
continuous wear is expected.
Los Angeles Abrasion Test
➢ It is used to measure the toughness and abrasion resistance of aggregate such as crushing,
degradation and disintegration.
➢ This test is carried out by AASHTO T 96 or ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of
Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
Observations of Los Angeles Test
Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g
Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 - W2 g
Abrasion Value=( W1 - W2 ) / W1 x 100
Hardness and Toughness
➢ Hardness indicates how resistant a rock is to scratching and indentation. It is often
measured using the Mohs scale, where minerals are ranked based on their ability to
scratch others. Harder rocks are preferred for applications requiring durability, such as
countertops and monuments.
➢ Toughness describes a rock’s ability to absorb energy and resist fracturing under sudden
or impacted forces. It is especially important for rocks used in structures that experience
dynamic loads, such as bridges and high-rise buildings.
Triaxial Shear Test
➢ A common method to measure the mechanical properties of many solids, especially soil
and rock.
➢ Stress is applied to a sample of the material being tested in a way which results in stresses
along one axis being different from the stresses in perpendicular directions.
Dynamics Properties of rock
Geotechnical engineering applications such as seismic designs, foundation analysis, and slope
stability depend on the dynamic properties of rocks such as modulus, damping, and wave
velocity.
2 Methods to measure Dynamic Properties of Rocks in the field and in the Lab
● Field Methods
Include subjecting the rock mass or structures to dynamic loads or vibrations and measuring the
reactions, such as displacements, stresses, or accelerations, that are produced. Seismic
refraction, seismic reflection, spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW), cross-hole and
down-hole testing, and dynamic penetration tests are a few of the frequently used field
techniques.
● Lab methods
With lab approaches, rock samples are examined in a regulated setting using specialized tools
and procedures. Resonant column tests, cyclic triaxial testing, bending element tests,
ultrasonic tests, and dynamic shear modulus tests are a few of the frequently used laboratory
techniques.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
To determine the dynamic properties of rocks, data from field or laboratory methods must be
examined and interpreted. Curve fitting, frequency domain analysis, wave propagation
modeling, inverse analysis, and statistical analysis are some examples of the approaches that
may be used for this.
Applications and implications
Many geotechnical engineering applications, including seismic design, foundation analysis, slope
stability, tunneling, blasting and rock mechanics, depend on the dynamic properties of rocks.
FOUR Key Properties
1. Modulus of Deformation (Young's Modulus)
• It was described by a Swiss scientist and engineer Leonhard Euler in 1727. In 1782, Italian
scientist Giordano Riccati performed experiments leading to modern calculations of the modulus.
Yet, the modulus takes its name from British scientist Thomas Young, who described its
calculation in his Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts in 1807. •
"Modulus" derived from the Latin root term modus which means “measure". Modulus of
Deformation or Young's Modulus reflects the stiffness of an earth's material or the resistance
to elastic deformation under load. Thomas Young describes the elastic properties of a solid
undergoing tension or compression in only one direction, as in the case of a metal rod that after
being stretched or compressed lengthwise returns to its original length. Sometimes it is called
"Elastic Modulus".
• Stress and strain may be described as follows in the case of a metal bar under tension. If a metal
bar of cross-sectional area A is pulled by a force F at each end, the bar stretches from its original
length Lo to a new length Ln. (Simultaneously the cross section decreases.) The stress is the
quotient of the tensile force divided by the cross-sectional area, or F/A.
The strain or relative deformation is the change in length, Ln - Lo, divided by the original length,
or (Ln - Lo)/Lo. (Strain is dimensionless.) Thus, Young's modulus may be expressed
mathematically as
2. Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus)
• The modulus of rigidity is the elastic coefficient when a shear force is applied resulting in
lateral deformation. A material(rock) property with a value equal to the shear stress divided by
the shear strain.
The shear modulus is determined by measuring the deformation of a solid from applying a force
parallel to one surface of a solid, while an opposing force acts on its opposite surface and holds
the solid in place. Think of shear as pushing against one side of a block, with friction as the
opposing force. Another example would be attempting to cut wire or hair with dull scissors.
The equation for the shear modulus is:
Where:
● G is the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity
● Txy is the shear stress
● Yxy is the shear strain
● F is the force applied
● A is the area over which the force acts
● Ax is the transverse displacement
● 1 is the initial length
Shear strain is Ax/1 = tan 0 or sometimes = 0, where 0 is the angle formed by the deformation
produced by the applied force.
• Larger the value of shear modulus, the more the material behaves as a rigid. Shear modulus is
important because it identifies the elastic behavior of material due to shear loading. Large shear
force acting on material will lead to fracture or stable deformation in material.
3. Bulk Modulus
• It is a measure of the ability of a substance to withstand changes in volume when under
compression on all sides.
• When an element is subjected to equal stresses in three mutually perpendicular directions then,
the ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain is called "Bulk Modulus".
• The applied pressure reduces the volume of a material, which returns to its original volume
when the pressure is removed.
• A substance that is difficult to compress has a large bulk modulus but a small compressibility.
A substance that is easy to compress has a high compressibility but a low bulk modulus.
4. Poisson's Ratio
• Named after French mathematician Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840)
• It is defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain for a uniaxial stress state.
• Poisson's ratio is a measure of the Poisson effect, the phenomenon in which a material tends to
expand in directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. Conversely, if the material is
stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contract in the directions transverse to the
direction of stretching. It is a common observation when a rubber band is stretched, it becomes
noticeably thinner.
• Rocks, like most materials, are subject to Poisson's effect while under stress. In a geological
timescale, excessive erosion or sedimentation of Earth's crust can either create or remove large
vertical stresses upon the underlying rock. This rock will expand or contract in the vertical
direction as a direct result of the applied stress, and it will also deform in the horizontal direction
as a result of Poisson's effect. This change in strain in the horizontal direction can affect or form
joints and dormant stresses in the rock.
• Poisson ratio helped me in judging the material's properties. The one which did not contract
were brittle and the one which did were ductile.
• Poisson ratio helps in noticing that the materials which had high Poisson's ratio got pulled
easily like rubber and the one which were hard to pull and got broken without showing any
elongation like cork had low Poisson's ratio.
• If poisson's ratio is high therefore it is a very stiff or high-modulus material.
References:
Mehta, A. (n.d.). Rock Mechanics_Unit_3.pdf. Scribd.
[Link]
Laya, A. J. (n.d.). Dynamic properties of rocks. Scribd.
[Link]
