Introduction to Bridges

Definitions:
A bridge is a structure constructed to carry traffic loads over obstruction such as a
valley or a river.
Span Length:

Bridge Components:

Roadway Width Railing

Curb Parapet
Deck Slab

Steel Stringers

Figure of a Deck Slab on Steel Stringers

Types of Bridges:
Bridges may be steel, concrete or composite structures. They may be a through, a
deck, and a half-through types as illustrated hereafter.
Steel Bridges:
1. Through Bridge:
a. Structural components are above the deck.
b. No structures under the bridge.

A Truss-Through Bridge

A Through-Bridge Structural Elements

2. Deck Type:
a. Structural components are under the deck.
b. Requires space under the bridge.

A Truss-Deck Bridge
The Truss-Deck Bridge Structural Elements are the same as those for the Through-
Bridge illustrated above.
3. Half-through Type:

A Half-through Deck Bridge

Steel Bridges:
1. A Beam Bridge:
Composite or non-composite. Slab Curb

W shape or Plate Girder

Beam Bridge
2. Box Girders:
Good for curved girder because of large torsional strength.

Steel Box Girders

3. Arch Bridges:
Arch bridges are among the oldest types of bridges and possessed high strength.
Loads including own weight are carried along the arch axis to the supports.
Supports are called abutments carry the load and keep the bridge ends from moving
out.
4. Steel-Arch Bridges:
As appeared above and hereafter.
The arch bridge is excellent for long spans because the horizontal thrust force at
each reaction helps reducing the internal bending moment in the main carrying
girder or truss.
5. Orthotropic Steel Deck Bridges:
A steel plate serves as top flange and as roadway deck. An asphalt wearing surface
is usually applied on top of the deck. This type of a girder bridge can be used for
spans that usually require a truss, arch, or a cantilever bridge.

An Orthotropic Steel Deck Bridge

6. Girder Steel Bridges:
can either be done using truss girder or solid web girder. Solid web girder comes in
two types: plate girder or box girder. Plate girders are also known as I-beam or H-
beams while box girders have shapes of closed four-sided trapezoids. Plate girders
are adopted for simply supported spans of less than 50 meters and box girders for
continuous spans up to 250 meters. Truss girders are suitable for bridges at span
range of 30 meters to 350 meters.
7. Cable-stayed Steel Bridges:
Depends on a tower or pylon that extends high where the high-tension cables or
tendons that carries the deck are anchored or tied-up. This type of bridges is
economical for spans of 150 meters up to over 500 meters. In this type of bridge
support system, the cables originate from the top of pylon and runs directly to the
girders at intervals appearing like the ribs of a fan. Towers or pylons are reinforced
concrete, fabricated structural steel, or combination
8. Suspension Steel Bridges:
The difference between cable-stayed bridge and suspension steel bridge is the
arrangement of the cables or stays. In suspension bridge, the cables supporting the
deck are suspended vertically from the main cable. The cables are distributed both
at the top and bottom making them in right angle with the deck. The main cables that
hold the stays runs from tower to tower and deeply anchored at ground at both ends.
Suspension bridges are the best solutions for long span bridges.

A Suspension Steel Bridge

Reinforced Concrete Bridges:
A Slab Bridge:
A slab bridge is the simplest type of a bridge superstructure, consisting of a
reinforced concrete supportd by abutments or piers.
It may be best suited for short spans between 3 and 12. For longer spans, as the
concrete own weight becomes heavior, other designs suc as T-beams may be used.

A Slab Bridge
A T-Beam Bridge:
A reinforced concrete structural system which comprises the deck slab (flange) and
the web cast together to form a T-shaped section. Multiple T-beams are placed side
by side to form the bridge superstructure which may span up to 40 meters.
 A T-Beam Bridge

Movable Bridges:
Established in several types of bridges that can move to accommodate the passage
of boats and ships. Movable bridges include drawbridges, vertical-lift
bridges, transporter bridges, and swing (pivot) bridges.

A double-leaf drawbridge -Upward Swing

A swing (pivot) bridge-Rotated Horizontally

A vertical-lift bridge
 A transporter bridge
Remarkable Bridges:
China highest and longest bridge:

The highest-longest bridge-China

 Bridge Design

The advantages of cantilever construction for long-span structures can

be demonstrated by a simple example.
Example:
A bridge is to have a main splan of 110’ and two approach spans of 40’
each. Compare moments in the main span between simple construction
and cantliver construction. Use a uniform load of 1 klf for comparison.
AASHTO Design Methodologies:
AASHTO, the first letters for the “AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF
STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS”.
The AASHTO Bridge Design Specifications published the recent LRFD
methodology in 1994. In the preceding years, it followed WSD and LFD
methodology.
In general, both LFD and LRFD consider load factors and capacity
reduction which may be introduced such that,
𝜙𝑅𝑛 ≥ 𝛾𝑖𝑄𝑖
Load Factors γ:
Accounts for potential overloading or unpredictability in service loads
(e.g., higher factors for live loads than dead loads).
Phi Factors, 𝜙:
Accounts for under-strength materials, construction inaccuracies, or
poor workmanship.

In regard with LFD,

LFD methodology uses a basic approach with a single load factor (such
as 1.3 or 1.6 depending on load combination) to amplify load together
with a strength reduction factor, 𝜙, to take care of a capacity reduction.
In regard with LRFD,
The total factored load effect may be taken as:
𝑄 = ∑𝜂𝑖𝛾𝑖𝑄𝑖
Where:
𝑄: total factored force effect.
𝑄𝑖: force effect.
𝜂𝑖: load modifier
𝛾𝑖: load factor; a statistically based multiplier applied to force
effects.
It may be said that LRFD design differs from LFD in considering
specific limit states which include strength, extreme event, service and
fatigue.
It may be concluded that LRFD Design is more accurate in getting a
reliable design while LFD may result with a conservative design.
Highway Type Live Loads:

AASHTO HS Trucks
HS 20-44 and HS 15-44
HS20 - 44: The HS20 loading model as standardized in 1944.
Gross Weight: 8 + 16 + 16 = 40 kips (20 tons)
HS15 - 44: The HS15 loading model as standardized in 1944.
Gross Weight: 6 + 12 + 12 = 30 kips (15 tons)
1994 (LRFD): Introduction of HL-93 loading in the LRFD
specifications.
HS-20 Live Load
The HS-20 live load is an older standard, adopted in 1944. It consists of
a specific design truck with a three-axle configuration. The truck has an
8-kip front axle, followed by two 32-kip rear axles. The spacing between
the two 32-kip axles can be varied from 14 ft to 30 ft to produce the
worst-case effects on a bridge. This load model also includes a uniform
lane load of 0.64 kips per linear foot to represent the weight of other
vehicles on the bridge.
HL-93 Live Load
The HL-93 live load is the current standard for bridge design, introduced
with the AASHTO LRFD specifications in 1993. This load is a
combination of three distinct loading cases, and the design must be
checked for all of them to determine which one creates the most critical
stress:
1. Design Truck + Design Lane Load: This case combines the HS-
20 design truck with the uniform lane load of 0.64 kips per linear
foot. The axle spacing for the truck is varied to produce the
maximum force effects.
2. Design Tandem + Design Lane Load: This case uses a design
tandem, which consists of two 25-kip axles spaced only 4 ft apart.
This tandem is combined with the uniform lane load. This
configuration is particularly critical for producing maximum
shear and moment on shorter spans.
3. Design Truck (alone): This is the HS-20 truck applied without the
lane load.
Highway Type Live Loads (1.2.5 old AASHTO (HS20-44) and [Link].
new AASHTO (HL-93)).
 Summary:
In the transition from the Standard Specifications (Old) to the LRFD
Specifications (New/Current), the "HS-20" truck was rebranded as the
"Design Truck" under the HL-93 loading model. Here is the breakdown
of what is the same and what is different:

Feature Old AASHTO (Standard Specs) New AASHTO (LRFD Specs)

Loading Model You used either the Truck You must use both the Truck
load or the Lane load (whichever load and the Lane load simultaneously
was worse). (HL-93).

Lane Load Included a concentrated load (18k Only a uniform load (0.64 klf) is used,
or 26k) plus a uniform load (0.64 but it is added to the truck weight.
klf).

Tandem Load Usually not the primary design Includes a "Design Tandem" (two 25-
check for most spans. kip axles) that must be checked against
the truck.

Impact Calculated based on span length A constant factor (usually 33% for the
(Dynamic) (I=50/L+125). truck, 0% for the lane).
Highway Type Live Loads:
Highway Type Live Loads (1.2.5 old AASHTO (HS20-44) and [Link].
new AASHTO (HL-93)).
H-Type – Truck only (rarely used in certain local cases).
Hs-Type -Truck and Trailer.
Lane Loading:
Uniform Live Load (in old AASHTO, A Roving Concentrated Live
Load is considered).
Represents the average weight of many cars and trucks spread out along
the length of a traffic lane.
According to AASHTO,
Magnitude: 0.64 kips per linear foot (9.3 kN/m).
Transverse Length: Applied to the span portions to produce maximum
stress (entire length of the simple span).
Both truck (or truck and trailer) and lane loading must be considered for
each influence line. The most frequently live load is the HS20-44.
Computing Maximum Moment and Shear for a Simple Span Beam -
HS20-44 Loading.

8K 32 K 32 K

14’ 14’

32 (14) + 8 (28) = 72 x
x= 9.33’
d x
d = 14 – 9.33 = 4.67’
d/2 =2.33’ R = 72 K
 Example:
F a 50-foot simple span, determine M max.
Max. M due to HS20-44,

. R = 72K
8K 32 K ’
32 K
2.33

RL
CL RR
50’

RL (50) – 72 (25 – 2.33) = 0

72 (22.67)
RL = = 32.65 k
50
M max = 32.65 (25 – 2.33) – 8 (14) =740.2 – 112 = 628.2 1-k
Max. M due to lane loading,
12.5

I.L. MCL
(1 - k)

WL = 0.64 klf

1
ML= (50) (12.5) (0.64) = 2001-k ˂ 628.21-k
2

Check with Table, AASHTO Specs. M max = 627.91-k