1.

Define and describe communicative types

of sentences.
The sentence is the integral unit of speech built up of words. It
has a communicative function, where a sentence informs about a
situation; and it has a nominative function where a sentence
denotes an event or a situation, i.e. expresses propositional
nomination.

There are three main communicative types of sentences:

declarative, imperative, and interrogative. These communicative
sentence-types stand in strict opposition to one another.

Declarative sentences - A declarative sentence expresses a

statement. It is used to state information. It can be affirmative or
negative. Its main purpose is to give facts, opinions or
descriptions.

Imperative sentences- An imperative sentence is used to express

inducement, either affirmative or negative. It can be in a form of
request, command or advise for someone to do or not to do
something. It urges the listener to perform or not to perform a
certain action. The imperative sentence is connected to “action
response”, where the inducement can either be compiled with or
rejected.

Interrogative sentences- An interrogative sentence is used to ask

a question. It is a request for information wanted by the speaker
from the listener. It is naturally connected with an answer, and
together they form a question–answer unity in a dialogue.

2. Comment on the actual division of a

sentence.
The sentence can have actual division, which shows how
information is organized in communication. The purpose of the
actual division is to explain what information is already known
and what information is new or most important. The main parts of
the actual division are the theme and the rheme. The theme is
the starting point of communication. It names the object or
phenomenon that is already known or given in the context. The
rheme is the most important part of the message. It carries new,
important information. It is contextually relevant center of the
communication.

The actual division can be direct or inverted. When we have

direct actual division, the theme is expressed by the subject, and
the rheme by the predicate. In inverted actual division, the
subject expresses the rheme, and the predicate expresses the
theme.

3. Describe the verb-type combinability /kəm

ˌbīnəˈbilətē/ of the infinitive
The infinitive has dual combinability: verb-type and noun-type.
verb-type combinability of the infinitive shows how the infinitive
combines with other words like a verb. First, the infinitive
combines with nouns expressing the object of the action (e.g. to
read a book). Second, it combines with nouns expressing the
subject of the action (e.g. for him to come). Third, the infinitive
combines with modifying adverbs (e.g. to speak clearly). Fourth, it
combines with predicator verbs of semi functional nature, forming
a verbal predicate (e.g. want to go, begin to work). Fifth, the
infinitive combines with auxiliary finite verbs, forming analytical
verb forms (e.g. will go, must do).

4. Describe the noun-type combinability of

the infinitive
The noun-type combinability of the infinitive is shown in its ability
to function like a noun and combine with finite notional verbs.
first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second,
with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action.

5. Describe the grammatical categories of the

infinitive
The infinitive is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes
the three grammatical categories sharing them with the finite
verb, namely, the aspective category of development (continuous
in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective
coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive
in opposition). Consequently, the categories have its 8 forms: the
present active, the continuous active, the perfect active, the
perfect continuous active; the present passive, the continuous
passive, the perfect passive and the perfect continuous passive.

6. Why can't the gerund perform the function

of the paradigmatic verbal head-form?
The gerund cannot function as the paradigmatic verbal head-form
for several reasons. First, the gerund is more noun-like than the
infinitive and it is less closely connected to the finite verb in
meaning.

Second, unlike the infinitive, the gerund does not take part in
verb conjugation /ˌkɒn.dʒəˈɡeɪ.ʃən/. It is formed with the -ing
suffix, so it is less general and less flexible as a verb form.

finally from the lexico-grammatical point of view, the gerund is

less clear as a verb form than the infinitive. It is often confused
with the -ing verbal noun and the present participle. Because of
this, the gerund loses some of its purely verbal meaning.

7. Comment on the gerund combinability.

The gerund has dual combinability, sharing features of both the
verb and the noun. As a verb, it can combine with nouns
expressing the object of the action; with modifying adverbs; with
certain semi-functional predicator verbs, but other than modal.

As a noun, it can come after finate verb and act like an object (I
like reading).

With finite notional verbs It can follow a preposition and add extra
information (She is interested in learning English) .

With finite notional verbs as the subject of the action (Cooking

makes me happy).

With nouns as the prepositional adjunct /ˈædʒʌŋkt/ of various

functions.

8. Comment on the combinability of

participles.
The present participle has three types of combinability: verb-like,
adjective-like, and adverb-like. As a verb, it can combine with
objects, subjects, modifying adverbs, and auxiliary verbs. As an
adjective, it can modify nouns and combine with adverbs of
degree. As an adverb, it can modify verbs. This triple nature
makes the present participle flexible in sentences.

Different from the present participle, the past participle does not
have distinct combinability features. So the main functions of the
past participle in the sentence are those of the attribute and the
predicative.

9. Provide classification of determinatives

with examples
Determinatives are words that come before nouns to show
reference, quantity, possession or identity. They are classified
into three main classes based on their position in noun-phrases:
predeterminers, which appear before central determiners;
Predeterminers are: quantifiers, numerals-fractions. (evry
student, all bags) central determiners, which include articles,
demonstratives, possessives, and some quantifiers and appear
after predeterminers (e.g., the cat, this dog, my book); and
postdeterminers, which follow central determiners and include
numerals- ordinals/cardinals and some quantifiers (e.g., the first
three students). Determiners from the same class like two
predeterminers, two central determiners, or two postdeterminers
cannot appear together (all cats / all both cats ).

Topics:
1)Simple Sentence.
A simple sentence is a sentence that has only one subject–
predicate connection. This means it has only one situation being
described. This is called monopredication. If one subject is
connected with more than one action, the sentence is no longer
simple, because each action creates a new predicative line. For
example, in the sentence “I took the child in my arms and held
him,” the subject I is connected with two actions, took and held,
so the sentence has two predicative lines and is not simple. In the
same way, if there is one verb but more than one subject, each
subject forms its own connection with the predicate, so the
sentence is not simple.
In a simple sentence, all words have their own grammatical
places that show parts of a real situation. These parts are the
subject, predicate, object, adverbial, attribute, parenthetical
enclosure addressing enclosure and interjection. Each of them
plays a modifying role. They are not equal, but are arranged in a
hierarchy where all parts finally modify the whole sentence,
because the sentence shows the whole situation. Each part has a
modifying role: • The subject modifies the predicate. It shows
who performs the action. • The predicate modifies the subject
by showing what the subject does or is. • The object modifies
the action by showing what it affects. • The adverbial modifies
the action or the whole sentence by adding time, place, reason,
manner, etc. • The attribute modifies a noun by giving its
quality or feature. • Parentheticals show the speaker’s attitude.
• Addressing enclosure show who the speech is directed to. •
Interjections show emotion.
 Traditional grammar shows sentence structure by using
coordination and subordination, but it cannot show clearly
how words are really grouped in speech. This problem is
solved by the Immediate Constituent model. In this
model, a sentence is first divided into two big parts, the
subject group and the predicate group. Then these parts are
divided again into smaller parts. This shows how the
sentence is built step by step and how the words are
connected in a hierarchy.
 Modern grammar also looks at which parts of the sentence
are obligatory and which are optional. This is based on the
idea of valency (combining power of the word), especially of
the verb. Every verb needs a certain number of elements to
form a complete meaning. A sentence that has only these
necessary elements is called an elementary sentence.
When we add optional parts like adverbs or attributes, but
do not add another subject–predicate connection, the
sentence becomes an expanded simple sentence. So all real
simple sentences are built by expanding basic elementary
patterns.
Simple sentences can also be two-axis or one-axis. In two-axis
sentences both the subject and the predicate are clearly present,
for example, “Mary is reading.” In one-axis sentences one of them
is not expressed but is understood. In free one-axis sentences the
missing part can be easily restored, as in dialogue: “Who is
coming?” – “Mary,” which means “Mary is coming.” In fixed one-
axis sentences the missing part cannot be clearly restored, or it is
not necessary to restore it, as in short expressions like “Lost keys.
Packing up. Silence everywhere.”
Simple sentences are also classified according to the type of
subject. They are personal or impersonal. Personal sentences
have a real subject. They can be human or non-human. Human
subjects can be definite, like “John is here,” or indefinite, like
“Someone is knocking.” Non-human subjects can be animate, like
“The dog barked,” or inanimate, like “The door opened.”
Impersonal sentences do not have a real doer of the action.
They can be factual, like “It is raining” or “It is five o’clock,” or
perceptional, like “It smells of hay here.” These different types
of subjects influence how they combine with predicates.
Simple sentences are also classified by the type of predicate. If
the predicate shows an action or a state, the sentence is
processual, for example, “She runs” or “He is sleeping.” If the
predicate shows what someone or something is, the sentence is
substantive or nominal, for example, “She is a teacher.”
They are also classified by subject–object relations. If there is no
object, the sentence is subjective or intransitive, as in “He
sleeps.” If there is an object, the sentence is objective or
transitive, as in “He reads a book.” Some sentences can be both,
like “The door opened” and “She opened the door.”
So, a simple sentence is a sentence with only one subject–
predicate connection. All its parts have their own places and
functions, and together they describe one complete situation in a
clear and organized way.
2)Adjective.
Adjective describes the quality of some entities such as age,
weight, shape, size, color and merit. It can be measured by its
modifier abilities, grades and functions. It can function either as
an attribute to describe/modify a noun for example ‘a red dress’,
or it can be used predicatively e.g. ‘the dress was red’. It has 3
degrees of comparison: plain (tall, useful), comparative (taller,
more useful) and superlative (the tallest, the most useful).
Adjectives can be modified by adverbs in order to intensify or
specify the adjective. For example ‘he was a remarkably talented
artist’, here the adverb emphasizes how talented the artist was.
Adjectives have their own phrases in which adjective itself acts
as the Head-word. It is accompanied by its dependents:
complements and modifiers. Complements are required and
licensed by the adjective. It includes prepositional phrases (she’s
afraid of the dark) and subordinate clauses (difficult for us to see).
Selection of both the preposition and subordinate clause is
depended on the adjective itself.; modifiers are not required, they
generally add additional information via adverbs (extremely hot),
determinatives (this young) and prepositional phrases (In some
respects good idea). Adverbs denote things related to manner,
degree, intensity; determinatives describe quality or quantity and
PPs add details related to location, time, manner and other
aspects.
The adjective phrase has 2 major and 2 minor functions. 2 major
functions include predicative complement and predicative
adjunct. Predicative complement is of two types: [Link]-
intransitive clauses, where predicative complement, which is
expressed by the adjective, is linked to the subject. Thus, its
predicand is subject. (predicand is who/what the adjective applies
to). [Link]-transitive clauses, where predicative complement,
which is expressed by the adjective, is linked to the object. Its
predicand is the object. As for the predicative adjunct, it is
generally detached, but is still an important part of the sentence,
without which the sentence would be incomplete. ‘Unwilling to
accept these terms, he resigned’.
  2 minor functions of the adjective phrase include post-head
internal modifiers and external modifiers. Post-head
internal modifiers come after nouns and they are still part of
the Noun phrase. It has 3 types – exceptional postpositive
adjectives (the ones asleep), where adjective requires its
own preposition (the children keen on sports) and general
post positive adjectives or aka fused determiner-heads
(everything useful). As for the external modifiers they
generally are outside the core noun phrase, but is still a part
of it; still describes the noun. It is generally written before
indefinite articles a/an and is often accompanied by what,
how, such, some, so, too.
Even though some adjectives can function both as attributes and
predicatives, some adjectives are only restricted to have only
attributive function for example ‘utter’, while others, for example
‘asleep’ have only predicative function. So, we can say that was
utter nonsense, but not the nonsense was utter; we can say the
children were asleep and not asleep were children.
Adjectives also have gradability meaning that they have
comparative and superlative forms, where different degrees are
possible and they accept modifiers such as pretty (meaning
‘fairly’), too (meaning ‘excessively’) and very. These are scalar
properties, meaning that different degrees can be identified.
That’s why we can ask ‘how good is it?’ and we can answer ‘very
good’. However, not all adjectives fit the scalar property. These
are adjectives that can not take very, too, pretty. For example,
‘the chief difficulty’ – we can not say ‘very chief difficulty’, it
would be grammatically incorrect. Sometimes adjectives can act
both as gradable and non-gradable adjectives. For example, non-
gradable use is the British government, so, a general use of the
adjective, while gradable use would be a very British response,
which denotes extended, metaphorical meaning.
(ADDITIONAL INFORMATION) Comparison of nouns vs adjectives
and verbs vs adjectives
The main difference between nouns and adjectives is connected
to: inflection, determiners, modifiers and function. Inflection –
noun has plural forms, that do not appear in the case of
adjectives and adjectives have degrees of comparison, which the
nouns do not have. Determiners – nouns may take genetives or
determiners such as which, some, while adjectives can’t: ‘which
judge?’. Modifiers – noun is modified by the adjective, while
adjective is modified by an adverb. Function – Nouns can function
as the head of the phrase in subject or object function.
Sometimes the difference is difficult to notice in fused-head
constructions , where adjectives stand where nouns should have
been. They still remain adjectives but they include the understood
noun, rather than being the nouns itself. In such cases nouns are
implied not spoken. “the tax will benefit only the rich”, here ‘rich’
acts as a noun, but in reality is still an adjective. In such
constructions, we can differentiate them using the 4 main
differences we have discussed above (inflection, determiners,
modifiers, functions).
In case verbs and adjectives share the same plain form, we
should check inflected froms (preterite:tamed;
comparative:tamer, superlative:tamest); and the ability to be
modified by “very” (verb forms can’t be, adjective forms can be
modified by “very”).
3)Complex Sentence.
A composite sentence is any sentence with two or more
predicative lines. There are three types: compound sentences,
complex sentences and compound-complex sentences. Today
we’ll be focusing on the complex sentence.
A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction that
contains one dependent clause and one or more independent
clauses. It is built on the principle of subordination. This means
that it contains two or more predicative lines and that one clause
is dependent on another. A complex sentence is formed from two
or more basic sentences, one of which becomes the main or
principal clause, while the others become subordinate clauses.
Even in the smallest complex sentence there are two clauses, a
principal clause and a subordinate clause, and although they
are not equal, they together form one complete meaning.
The subordinate clause is usually connected to the principal
clause by a subordinator, such as that, because, if, when, who,
which, or sometimes without any visible
connector( asydentically) Even when there is no conjunction,
the clause is still dependent, The two clauses are connected in
meaning and structure and support each other. Subordinators
also differ. Some of them take a position inside the clause, like
who, what, which, where, when, while others are only
conjunctions, like because, if, although, until. Some subordinators
can work in both ways.
The principal clause usually has a leading position, but it does
not always carry the main information. Very often the principal
clause only introduces the subordinate clause, while the
subordinate clause contains the most important meaning. For
example, in sentences like You see that mine is the most
miserable lot or Just imagine that James has proposed to Mary,
the main clause only keeps the conversation going, while the real
message is in the subordinate clause. This introductory role of the
main clause is called the phatic function.
principal clauses are divided into merger clauses, where the
main parts of the sentence are expressed by subordinate
clauses, and non-merger clauses, where subordinate clauses
occupy secondary positions and convey additional, non-
essential information.
 Subordinate clauses can be classified in two ways: by their
function in the sentence and by their meaning. From the
functional point of view, a subordinate clause can act as a
subject, a predicative, an object, an attribute, or an adverbial. In
this way, a complex sentence looks like a simple sentence. From
the meaning point of view, subordinate clauses are divided into
three main groups. Substantive-nominal clauses name facts or
events, for example That he didn’t come surprised me.
Qualification-nominal clauses describe or limit a noun, for
example The man who came in the morning left a message.
Adverbial clauses show relations such as time, cause, condition,
or manner, for example All will be well if we arrive in time.
 Subject clauses function as the subject of the sentence and
are closely connected to the principal clause, for example
What he says is true. They are inseparable from the main
clause. Sometimes they are introduced with an anticipatory
it, as in It is clear that he is right.

 Object clauses function as objects, for example I don’t

remember what his name is or He thought that it might be
true. Many object clauses are connected with verbs of
speaking or thinking and express reported speech or
thought, as in Wainright said that Eastin would report to
him.

 Attributive clauses describe or limit a noun. They can be

descriptive or restrictive. Restrictive clauses define which
person or thing we mean, while descriptive clauses only
add extra information. For example, The man who lives next
door is a doctor is restrictive, while My brother, who lives
next door, is a doctor is descriptive. Some descriptive
clauses can also be continuative. There are also appositive
clauses, which explain abstract words like fact, idea, plan,
 question. For example, The fact that he was late annoyed
me.

 Adverbial clauses express different relations. Clauses of

time and place show when and where something happens,
as in When Bill decided to leave, everyone was sad. Clauses
of manner and comparison show how something happens,
as in He acted as though nothing had happened.
Circumstantial clauses show cause, condition, purpose,
result, or concession, as in If you come, I will help you or
Although it was raining, we went out.

 Parenthetical clauses give comments and are more loosely

connected to the main clause.

Some subordinate clauses are obligatory, which means the main

clause cannot exist without them, for example in subject,
predicative, or object clauses: The problem is that we are late.
Other clauses are optional, especially adverbial clauses, which
can be removed without destroying the main clause, for example
The girl looked at him as though she was surprised → The girl
looked at him. Because of this, complex sentences are divided
into one-member and two-member structures. One-member
complex sentences have obligatory subordinate clauses and
express one complex idea. Two-member complex sentences
have optional subordinate clauses and express two related ideas.
Complex sentences can also be monolithic or segregative. In
monolithic sentences, the subordinate clause is closely
connected and cannot be removed. In segregative sentences,
the subordinate clause is loosely connected, and it can be
removed. also there is parallel subordination, two clauses
depend on the same main clause. They can be of the same type
or different types. and In consecutive subordination, one
subordinate clause depends on another, creating levels of
subordination. Usually, everyday speech does not go beyond
three levels.
4)Adverb.
An adverb provides additional context, such as how, when,
where, what extent or how often something happens. It modifies
other adverbs (too quickly), adjectives (remarkably talented) and
verbs (sings loudly). Adverbs are categorized into several types:
Manner, time, place, frequency, degree, purpose. Adverbs of
manner show how something happens (she sings beautifully);
adverbs of time show when something happens (I will go
tomorrow); adverbs of place show where something happens (he
looked everywhere); adverbs of frequency show how often
something happens (I often go to the gym); adverbs of degree
show to what extent something happens (it’s very hot today; she
almost finished her homework). Adverbs of Purpose explain why
something happens (e.g., because, so, to, therefore).
Similarly to adjectives, adverbs have their own phrase, which
consists of dependents: complements and modifiers. 1.
Complements – adverbs in general, but more specifically adverbs
that are generally formed by -ly suffix typically license
complements. These complements are sometimes associated with
adjectives. for example: separately from – separate from; similarly
to – similar to; And other times they have nothing to do with
adjectives: ‘happily for the boys, the teacher didn’t assign them
homework. Here ‘happily’ is not inherited from the adjective
‘happy’ and is specific to the adverb itself. 2. As for the modifiers,
modifiers in adverb phrases are typically other adverb phrases
(SHE SANG VERY WELL); but it can also be prepositional phrases
(they behaved badly in the extreme), noun phrase (I’m virtually
his only friend) and determinatives (I didn’t do it that well).
Unlike the adjective, which modifies the noun, adverb generally
modifies other adverbs, verbs and adjectives. The main difference
between adjectives and adverbs is the fact that adverbs do not
function as predicative complements. So we can only say she
performed impressively, but not the performance was
impressively. Unlike this, in the case of adjectives, we CAN say
either way: Her impressive performance or her performance was
impressive.
Some words may LOOK LIKE the adverb, but in reality they are
adjectives. For example: motherly, fatherly, womanly, beastly,
cowardly, deathly, friendly, princely.
Thus, adverb is an integral part of English grammar and it gives
us specific information about when, where, how, how often and to
what extent something happens.
5)Compound sentence.
A composite sentence is any sentence with two or more
predicative lines. There are three types: compound sentences,
complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.
Today we’ll be focusing on the compoud sentence.
A compound sentence consists of 2 or more independent clauses
with no dependent one. It is formed from two or more basic
sentences that lose their independence and become coordinate
clauses. The first clause is called the leading or leader clause,
and the following ones are called sequential clauses. Very
often the sequential clauses contain connectors, which link them
to the leader clause, though they are not dependent in the same
way as in complex sentences. The main connectors of
coordination are conjunctions like and, but, or, nor, either…or,
neither…nor, and adverbial coordinators like then, yet, so,
therefore, however, nevertheless, consequently. . When clauses
are loosely connected, this is called cumulation, often using
commas, dashes, or semicolons.
 Also, The number of clauses in a compound sentence is not
limited. Most often, compound sentences have two clauses, but
they can have more.
There are different types of multi-clause compound sentences:
Open compound sentences and Closed compound sentences.
Open compound sentences show simple addition or
enumeration and are often used in description or narration.
Closed compound sentences end with a final clause that gives
a conclusion, contrast, or climax. These are often very expressive,
especially in literature, for example: Pleasure may turn a heart to
stone, riches may make it callous, but sorrow — oh, sorrow cannot
break it.
Compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the
principle of coordination. This means that it consists of two or
more clauses that are connected as equals, not in a relation of
dependence like in complex sentences. The clauses are joined
either syndetically, with coordinating conjunctions such as and,
but, or, nor, or asyndetically, without any visible connector.
Coordination can often be changed into subordination, but they
are not the same. Coordination shows general relations between
events, while subordination shows more exact logical relations.
For example, I invited Mike, but he refused can become Though I
invited Mike, he refused, but the two are not always
interchangeable, especially in narration.
There are two main semantic types of coordination in compound
sentences. The first is unmarked coordination. It is usually
expressed by asyndetic connection.. often using ‘and’. For
example, You will have a great deal to say to her, and she will
have a great deal to thank you for may really imply a result or
cause. The second type is marked coordination. It is expressed
by conjunctions and adverbial connectors such as but, yet, still,
however, so, therefore, consequently. Sometimes coordination is
doubly marked, for example but instead, and yet, or else, which
makes the relation even clearer.
The clauses of a compound sentence describe different events
that are connected in meaning and together form one whole idea.
Some linguists believed that a compound sentence is just a group
of independent sentences written together. They gave three
reasons for this: first, each clause can have falling, finishing
intonation; second, the same conjunctions can be used to start
independent sentences; and third, the clauses can often be
separated by full stops without changing the basic meaning.
However, this view is not correct, because in a compound
sentence the clauses are not just placed next to each other. A
true compound sentence shows coordination, which creates
logical and semantic connection between clauses. coordinative
relations show how the event are linked, so, it shows relationships
such as addition, contrast, cause, result ot consequence. These
relations make a compound sentence different from a simple
sequence of sentences.
Thus, In a compound sentence, the clauses are connected
closely by clear semantic relations. These relations include
agreement or harmony, expressed by and; contrast or
opposition expressed by but or yet; choice or alternation
expressed by or; and reason or consequence expressed by for
or so. These relations show how the events in the clauses are
linked.
In a compound sentence, intonation plays an important role. The
intonation connects the clauses into one whole. The rise and fall
of tone shows wether clauses belong to one sentence or are
separate sentences.
Thus, a compound sentence is a composite sentence made of
coordinate clauses that are equal in status but closely connected
in meaning, intonation, and structure, forming one communicative
whole
6)Verbids.
Non-finite forms of the verb, also called verbids, are verb forms
that do not show person, number, or tense and therefore cannot
function as the predicate of a sentence on their own. They do not
agree with the subject and do not express time directly.
Unlike finite verbs, verbids do not show tense or mood directly. A
finite verb can form the grammatical center of a sentence
because it expresses time and attitude toward reality. Verbids
cannot do this. Instead, they present an action in a more abstract
way — as a thing, a quality, or a description of another action.
This difference between finite and non-finite verb forms creates a
grammatical category called the category of finitude.
Finite verbs express full predication and can stand independently.
Verbids, however, express only secondary or semi-predication.
This means that they cannot form a sentence on their own but
appear as parts of sentences built around a finite verb. Their time
and mood are understood through their connection with the main
verb.
English has four main verbids: the infinitive, the gerund, the
present participle, and the past participle. Each of them forms its
own type of semi-predicative constructions and functions
differently in a sentence.

The infinitive
The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb that combines
verbal and nominal properties and serves as the verbal name
of a process. Because it names the process in a general way, the
infinitive can be regarded as the head-form of the whole
verbal paradigm. In English, all regular verb forms are derived
from infinitive. For this reason, the infinitive has been called the
“verbal nominative.”
 The infinitive has 3 main functions: First, free (self-positional)
use, where the infinitive functions as an independent sentence
part. It can fit the role of the subject, object, predicative,
attributive or adverbial modifier. For example, ‘to meet the head
of the administration was unwise’ in this sentence the infinitive
functions as the subject. Second, the half-free use, where the
infinitive is part of a complex verbal predicate. It depends on
another verb. ‘she began to cry’. Third, the bound use, where the
infinitive is part of a finite verb form. It is grammatically fixed
and can not function independently. ‘she will go’.
The English infinitive has two formal variants:
1. the to-infinitive (marked infinitive);
2. the bare infinitive (unmarked infinitive).
The to-infinitive is typical in free uses and contains the particle
to. Its only role is to mark the infinitive form. Like other analytical
markers, to can stand alone and represent the whole infinitive
construction:You may consult the documents if you want to. This
is also used to avoid repetition.
The particle to can also be separated from the verb by an
adverb, forming a split infinitive: to clearly define
The bare infinitive is used mainly in bound constructions,
where the infinitive appears:
 after modal verbs (except ought and used);
 after modal expressions (had better, would rather);
 after know in the sense of “experience”;
 after why (Why worry?).
 after let, make, bid, and optionally help;
 after verbs of perception (see, hear);
When the infinitive has its own subject, that is different from the
subject of the main clause, it is introduced by the particle for. This
construction is called the for-to infinitive phrase: For that shy-
looking young man to have stated his purpose so boldly —
incredible! In other cases, especially after verbs of perception,
thinking, or forcing, the infinitive appears in semi-predicative
constructions known as the complex object and complex subject.
The complex subject is the passive counterpart of the complex
object.

The combinability of the infinitive also reflects its dual nature. Accordingly, two types of
combinability are distinguished: verb-type and noun-type.

Verb-type combinability is shown when the infinitive combines:

 with nouns expressing the object of the action (to read a book);
 with nouns expressing the subject of the action (for him to leave);
 with adverbs (to speak clearly);
 with semi-functional predicator verbs, forming a complex verbal predicate (want to
go);
 with auxiliary finite verbs in analytical verb forms (will go, must go).

Noun-type combinability is shown when the infinitive combines:

 with finite notional verbs as the object (She decided to stay);

 with finite notional verbs as the subject (To hesitate was a mistake).

The gerund
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb and is completely
homonymous with the present participle. Its grammatical marker
is the suffix -ing. like the infinitive, it combines verbal and nominal
properties. Like the infinitive, it serves as a verbal name of a
process, but its substantive (noun-like) character is more strongly
expressed than that of the infinitive. In other words, the infinitive
is closer to the verb, whereas the gerund is closer to the noun.
The gerund cannot function as the paradigmatic head-form of the
verb for several reasons:
 1. Semantically, it is more detached from the finite verb than
the infinitive and tends to function as a highly substantival
unit.
2. Unlike the infinitive, the gerund does not participate in the
conjugation of the finite verb. It is a suffixal form (ending in -
ing), which makes it less generalized and less flexible as a
verb form.
3. From the lexico-grammatical point of view, the gerund is less
definite than the infinitive, since it is easily confused with the
verbal noun in -ing and with the present participle.
For these reasons, the gerund cannot compete with the infinitive
in performing the function of the paradigmatic head-form of the
verb.
A specific and distinctive feature of the gerund is its ability to
combine with a possessive noun or possessive pronoun. This
happens if the gerund construction has its own subject. the
gerund can also combine with a common-case noun or an
objective pronoun, especially in journalistic or less formal usage.

Like the infinitive, the gerund shows dual combinability, sharing features of both the verb and
the noun.

Verb-type combinability of the gerund

The gerund behaves like a verb when it combines:

 with nouns expressing the object of the action (reading a book);

 with modifying adverbs (speaking confidently);
 with certain semi-functional predicator verbs, but not modal verbs (avoid doing, enjoy
reading, finish writing).

Noun-type combinability of the gerund

The gerund behaves like a noun when it combines:

 with finite notional verbs as the object (I enjoy reading);

 with finite notional verbs as a prepositional adjunct (He insisted on leaving);
  with finite notional verbs as the subject (Smoking is dangerous);
 with nouns as a prepositional adjunct (a habit of complaining).

The present participle

The present participle is a non-finite form of the verb which
combines verbal properties with those of the adjective and the
adverb. It serves as a qualifying-processual name, that is, it
presents an action as a quality or as a descriptive process. Like
the gerund, it ends in -ing, but its grammatical role is different.
The present participle occupies its own position in the general
paradigm of the verb, which is different from that of the past
participle.
The present participle can function as an attribute (Front-
position (before the noun); Back-position (after the
noun)), an adverbial modifier, and more rarely as a predicative.
The present participle has triple combinability:
Verb-type combinability

The present participle behaves like a verb when it combines:

 with nouns expressing the object of the action (reading a book);

 with nouns expressing the subject of the action in *semi-predicative complexes (I saw
him crossing the street);
 with modifying adverbs (speaking quietly);
 with auxiliary finite verbs in analytical verb forms (is reading, was speaking).

Adjective-type combinability

The present participle behaves like an adjective when it:

 modifies nouns (an irritating question);

 combines with modifying adverbs e.g. adverbs of degree (more amusing, very
pleasing).
Adverb-type combinability

The present participle behaves like an adverb when it:

 modifies finite verbs, functioning as an adverbial modifier (She left smiling).

The past participle

The past participle is a non-finite form of the verb that combines
verbal properties with those of an adjective, serving as a
qualifying-processual name. It is a single form and has no
paradigm of its own. Through its connection with the present
participle, it conveys the meaning of the perfect and passive.
Unlike the present participle, the past participle does not have
specific adverb-like combinability. But, we can still say that in
terms of verb-type combinability, past participle combines with
auxiliary verbs to express perfect or passive; in terms of
adjective-type, combines with nouns it describes, thus acts as an
adjective.
The past participle is mainly used as an attribute or as part of
the predicate. The past participle can also appear in detached
constructions, where it provides background information or
conditions for the main action.
In conclusion, verbids are special verb forms that do not express
full predication but still keep essential verbal features. They form
semi-predicative constructions and allow English to express
complex ideas in a compact and flexible way. The infinitive,
gerund, present participle, and past participle each contribute to
this system by combining verbal meaning with nominal,
adjectival, or adverbial functions.
The baby fell asleep quickly. - simple

I wanted to stay home, but my friends convinced me to go out. - compound

When the rain stopped, we continued our journey. - complex

She was tired, yet she finished the project on time. - compound

Although the exam was difficult, he passed it easily. - complex

The sun set, and the sky turned pink. - compound

I found the book that you recommended. - complex

Because she was late, she missed the bus, and she had to walk. - compound-complex

He opened the door and looked outside. - SIMPLEI

While I was studying, my phone rang, and I lost my concentration. - compound-complex

The children played in the yard. - simple

She wanted to travel abroad, but she didn’t have enough money. - compound

When the teacher entered the room, the students became quiet. - complex

I washed the dishes, and I cleaned the kitchen. - compound

He knows the girl who won the competition. - complex

Although it was raining, we stayed outside, and we talked for hours. - compound-complex

The dog barked loudly at the stranger. - simple

She finished her homework because she wanted to relax. - complex

The lights went out, and everyone screamed. - compound

When I saw him, I waved, and he smiled back. - compound-complex

The movie was boring. - simple

He tried to call her, but she didn’t answer because she was asleep. - compound-complex
After the meeting ended, we went for coffee. - complex

She likes tea, and she drinks it every morning. - compound

The student who was nervous made a mistake. - complex

Although he apologized, she didn’t forgive him. - complex

I woke up late, so I skipped breakfast. - compound

When the bell rang, the students who were waiting rushed inside. - complex

She sings beautifully. - simple

The storm ended, and the sun came out, but the roads were still wet. - compound

Because he studied hard, he passed the exam. - complex

I wanted to help, and I stayed after class. - compound

She smiled when she saw her friend. - complex

The teacher explained the rule, and the students asked questions. - compound

Although the book was long, I finished it, and I wrote a review. - compound-complex

He ran to the station, but the train had already left. - compound

When I opened the window, the bird flew away. - complex

The phone rang while I was cooking. - complex

She stayed at home because it was snowing. - complex

I like coffee, but I drink tea when I can’t sleep. - compound-complex

The cat slept on the warm windowsill. simple

I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining. compound

She smiled when she saw the letter. complex

We finished the project, and we celebrated at a café. compound

He stayed inside because he felt sick. complex

The children were playing in the garden. Simple

I was tired, so I went to bed early. compound

When the sun rose, the city slowly woke up. complex

She opened the door, and the dog ran outside. compound

They canceled the trip because the weather was terrible. Complex

The teacher explained the lesson clearly. simple

I studied for the exam, but I still felt nervous. compound

She called her friend after she finished work. complex

He cooked dinner, and she set the table. compund

The baby fell asleep in the car. simple

We stayed at home because it was snowing. complex

The lights went out, and everyone started screaming. compound

Although he was afraid, he spoke confidently. complex

She read a book while he was watching TV. complex

The storm ended. Simple

The cat slept on the warm windowsill. simple

I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining. compound

She smiled when she saw the letter. complex

We finished the project, and we celebrated at a café. compound

He stayed inside because he felt sick. complex

The children were playing in the garden. simple

I was tired, so I went to bed early. compound

When the sun rose, the city slowly woke up. complex
She opened the door, and the dog ran outside. compound

They canceled the trip because the weather was terrible. Complex

The cat slept on the warm windowsill. simple

I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining. compound

When the sun came out, we went to the park. complex

She finished her homework, and she watched a movie afterward. compound

Because he was tired, he went to bed early. complex

The teacher explained the rule, and the students took notes while she spoke. compound-complex

My brother plays the guitar beautifully. simple

Although it was expensive, I bought the book, and I don’t regret it. compound-complex

They missed the bus, so they arrived late. compound

If you study hard, you will succeed. Complex

The baby started crying when the lights went out. complex

I cleaned my room, but my sister made a mess again. compound

She smiled. simple

While I was cooking, he set the table, and the guests arrived. compound-complex

The dog barked loudly at the stranger. simple

Because she loves literature, she reads every day, and she writes reviews online. compound-
complex

He opened the window, and fresh air filled the room. compound

After the movie ended, we discussed the plot. complex

The students studied for the test, but they still felt nervous. compound

When the phone rang, I answered it immediately. Complex

The birds were singing in the garden. simple

I wanted to call you, but I forgot your number. compoud

Since she was sick, she stayed home, and she skipped the lecture. compound-complex

He ran to the station because he didn’t want to miss the train. complex

The cake looked delicious. simple

She loves coffee, and she hates tea. compound

Although I tried my best, I couldn’t solve the problem. complex

The storm ended, and the sky became clear. compound

When I saw the message, I felt relieved. complex

I was tired, but I kept working because the deadline was close. compound-complex

1. When the teacher arrived, the students became quiet, and the lesson began.
✅ Compound–complex — correct

 Subordinate clause: When the teacher arrived

 Two independent clauses: the students became quiet / the lesson began

2. She likes tea, but he prefers coffee, and they often argue about it.
❌ Not compound–complex → Compound since:

 Three independent clauses

 Coordinators: but, and
 No subordinate clause

➡️Compound sentence (multiple coordination ≠ compound–complex)

3. I stayed inside because it was cold, and I watched a movie.

✅ Compound–complex — correct

 Independent clauses: I stayed inside / I watched a movie

  Subordinate clause: because it was cold

4. Although she was tired, she finished her work, and she went to bed.
❌ Not complex → Compound–complex

 Subordinate clause: Although she was tired

 Independent clauses: she finished her work / she went to bed

➡️Compound–complex

5. The train arrived, and the passengers who were waiting rushed forward.
❌ Not compound → Compound–complex

 Independent clauses: The train arrived / the passengers rushed forward

 Subordinate clause inside NP: who were waiting (relative clause!)

➡️Still counts as compound–complex in most syntax courses.

6. When I saw the message, I smiled, and I called her.

❌ Not compound → Compound–complex

 Subordinate clause: When I saw the message

 Independent clauses: I smiled / I called her

7. He ran home because it was getting dark, and his phone was dead.
✅ Compound–complex — correct

8. She studies hard, and she works part-time because she needs money.
✅ Compound–complex — correct

9. Although it was raining, we continued walking, and we enjoyed it.

❌ Not complex → Compound–complex
  Subordinate clause: Although it was raining
 Independent clauses: we continued walking / we enjoyed it

10. When the bell rang, the students left the classroom.
❌ Not compound → Complex

 One independent clause

 One subordinate clause (when)

She stayed at home because she felt sick. - since this is a complex sentence, it must be
subordination.

I wanted to call you, but my phone was dead. – Since this is a compound sentence, it must be
coordination

When the lecture ended, the students left the room. - subordination

He opened the window and let in some fresh air. - coordination

Although it was raining, they continued the match. - subordination

You can take the bus or walk to the office. - coordination

I will help you if you need assistance. - subordination

The child laughed and clapped his hands. - coordination

She didn’t go out because she had too much work. - subordination

He was tired, yet he finished the project. – coordination

1. because → subordination ✔
2. when → subordination ✔
3. although → subordination ✔
4. if → subordination ✔

5. but → coordination ✔
6. and → coordination ✔
7. or → coordination ✔
8. yet → coordination ✔