Mastery Programme

G10 Advanced Physics

Term 1
Key Concept 7: Electrical Circuits
Learning Outcomes
Key Concept 7: Electrical Circuits
• Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing cells, batteries, power supplies, generators, potential dividers, switches,
resistors (fixed and variable), heaters, thermistors (NTC only), light-dependent resistors (LDRs), lamps, motors, ammeters,
voltmeters, magnetizing coils, transformers, fuses and relays, and know how these components behave in the circuit
• Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and know how these components
behave in the circuit
• Know that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same
• Recall and use in calculations, the fact that:
o the sum of the currents entering a junction in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents that leave the junction
o the total p.d. across the components in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual p.d.s across each component
o the p.d. across an arrangement of parallel resistances is the same as the p.d. across one branch in the arrangement of
the parallel resistances
• Know how to construct and use series and parallel circuits
• Calculate the combined e.m.f. of several sources in series
• Calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series
• State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch
• Explain that the sum of the currents into a junction is the same as the sum of the currents out of the junction
• State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself
Learning Outcomes (cont’d)
Key Concept 7: Electrical Circuits
• Calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel
• State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit
• Know that the p.d. across an electrical conductor increases as its resistance increases for a constant current
• Describe the action of a variable potential divider
• Recall and use the equation for two resistors used as a potential divider
𝑅1 𝑉1
=
𝑅2 𝑉2
• State the hazards of:
(a) damaged insulation
(b) overheating cables
(c) damp conditions
(d) excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads, single and multiple sockets when using a mains supply
• Know that a mains circuit consists of a live wire (line wire), a neutral wire and an earth wire and explain why a switch must be
connected to the live wire for the circuit to be switched off safely
• Explain the use and operation of trip switches and fuses and choose appropriate fuse ratings and trip switch settings
• Explain why the outer casing of an electrical appliance must be either non-conducting (double-insulated) or earthed
• State that a fuse without an earth wire protects the circuit and the cabling for a double-insulated appliance
Circuit Components
The diagram below shows the circuit symbols that could be used in
circuit diagrams
• You will be expected to know what each component
is and how it behaves in a circuit

Power supplies
• Cells, batteries, power supplies and generators all supply
current to the circuit

Resistors
• Potential dividers, fixed and variable resistors, thermistors and
light-dependent resistors (LDRs) are all used to control current

Meters
• Ammeters and voltmeters are used to measure the current and
potential difference

Fuses
• Protect expensive components from current surges and act as a
safety measure against fire

Electromagnetic Components
• Magnetizing coils, relays and transformers use electromagnetic
effects
• Relays use a small current in one circuit to switch on a
much larger current in another
• Transformers 'step up' and 'step down' current and
potential difference
Current in Circuit- Series Circuits
• Increasing the number of components in the circuit
Current in Series Circuits increases the total resistance. Hence less current flows through
the circuit
• In a circuit that is a closed-loop, such as a series circuit, the
current is the same value at any point
• This is because the number of electrons per second
that passes through one part of the circuit is the same
number that passes through any other part

• This means that all components in a closed-loop have the

same current

• The amount of current flowing around a series circuit

depends on two things:
• The voltage of the power source
Current will increase if the voltage of the power supply
• The number (and type) of components in the circuit
increases, and decreases if the number of components
increases (because there will be more resistance)
• Increasing the voltage of the power source
drives more current around the circuit. So, decreasing the
voltage of the power source reduces the current
 • At a junction in a parallel circuit (where two or more wires meet) the
Current in Circuit- Parallel Circuits current is conserved. This means the amount of current flowing into
the junction is equal to the amount of current flowing out of it
A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached
along separate branches of the circuit. • This is because charge is conserved

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel • Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be
more current in some branches than in others
• The current in each branch will only be identical if
the resistance of the components along each branch
are identical

• Current behaves in this way because it is the flow of electrons:

• Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or
destroyed
• This means the total number of electrons (and hence current)
going around a circuit must remain the same
• When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will
• The advantages of this kind of circuit are: go one way and the rest will go the other
• The components can be individually controlled,
using their own switches
• If one component stops working the others will
continue to function

• In a parallel circuit, the current splits up - some of it

going one way and the rest going the other

• This means that the current in each branch will be smaller

than the current from the power supply
Current in Circuit

Step 1: Recall that at a junction, the current

is conserved

• This means that the total amount of

current flowing into a junction is equal
to the total amount flowing out

Step 2: Consider the first junction in the

circuit where current splits

• The diagram below shows the first

junction in the circuit

Step 3: Calculate the missing amount of current

• Since 10 A flows in to the junction (the total current from the battery), 10
A must flow out of the junction

• The question says that 6 A flows through ammeter A1 so the remaining

current flowing through ammeter A2 must be:
10 A − 6 A = 4 A

• Therefore, 4 A flows through ammeter A2

EMF and Potential Difference in Circuits Potential Difference in Parallel Circuits

• A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached

Potential Difference in Series Circuits
along separate branches of the circuit
• When several cells are connected in series, their combined
EMF is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs

Potential Difference in Series Circuits

In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the • The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
components is equal to the total EMF of the power supply • The components can be individually controlled, using
their own switches
• If one component stops working the others will
continue to function

• In a parallel circuit, the current splits up - some of it going

one way and the rest going the other

• This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than
the current from the power supply
Resistors in Series and Parallel Determining Resistance in Parallel

Resistors in Series • More generally, to determine the combined resistance of

When two or more components are connected in series: any combination of two resistors, you must use the
• The combined resistance of the components is equal equation:
to the sum of individual resistances

Resistors in Parallel
• When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined
resistance decreases and is less than the resistance of any
of the individual components To calculate the resistance:

• If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, • First find the value of 1/R (by adding 1/R1 + 1/R2)
then the combined resistance will halve
• Next find the value of R by using the reciprocal button on your
calculator (labelled either x-1 or 1/x, depending on your
calculator)
 Potentiometer
Potential Divider
A potentiometer is a single component that (in its simplest form) consists of
Variable Potential Dividers a coil of wire with a sliding contact, midway along it.

When two resistors are connected in series, the potential

difference across the power source is shared between them The sliding contact has the
effect of separating the
potentiometer into two parts –
an upper part and a lower
part – both of which have
different resistances

Moving the slider (the arrow in

the diagram) changes the
resistances (and hence potential
The potential difference across each resistor depends
differences) of the upper and
upon its resistance:
lower parts of the potentiometer
• The resistor with the largest resistance will have
a greater potential difference than the other one

• If the resistance of one of the resistors is

increased, it will get a greater share of the
• If the slider in the above diagram is moved upwards, the resistance of
potential difference, whilst the other resistor will
the lower part will increase and so the potential difference across it will
get a smaller share
also increase
Potential Divider
Resistors as Potential Dividers The equation for two
resistors used as a
• When two resistors are connected in series, through Kirchhoff’s potential divider
Second Law, the potential difference across the power source is
divided between them 𝑅1 𝑉1
=
𝑅2 𝑉2
• Potential dividers are circuits which produce an output voltage as
a fraction of its input voltage

• Potential dividers have two main purposes:

• To provide a variable potential difference • The input voltage Vin is applied to the top and bottom of the
• To enable a specific potential difference to be chosen series resistors
• To split the potential difference of a power source between two
or more components • The output voltage Vout is measured from the center to the
bottom of resistor R2
• Potential dividers are used widely in volume controls and sensory
circuits using LDRs and thermistors • The potential difference V across each resistor depends upon
its resistance R:
• Potential divider circuits are based on the ratio of voltage between • The resistor with the largest resistance will have
components. This is equal to the ratio of the resistances of the a greater potential difference than the other one
resistors in the diagram below, giving the following equation: from V = IR
• If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it
will get a greater share of the potential difference, whilst
the other resistor will get a smaller share

• In potential divider circuits, the p.d across a component is

proportional to its resistance from V = IR
Potential Divider
Use of Circuit Components
Example
Relay
The circuit shown below contains a relay. Initially both
A relay consists of two parts: lamps are switch off. When Switch X is closed, the
• A coil (electromagnet) relay operates. In the table below, indicate whether
• A magnetic switch Lamp A and Lamp B are on or off when the relay
operates.

When there is a current in the coil, it attracts the switch which

completes the right part of the circuit
When the switch is closed, both the circuits will operate
• When there is a current in the coil, it creates a magnetic field which as the relay closes the second switch. So, both the
attracts the switch, closing it lamps will be on.
• This can be used to control a switch in a separate circuit, as shown in
the above diagram
 Light ~Emitting Diode (LDR)
Use of Circuit Components
An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a type of resistor which
changes its resistance when light is shone on it:
Thermistors • When more light is shone on an LDR its resistance
A thermistor is a type of resistor (a thermal resistor) which changes decreases
its resistance when it is heated up: • If an LDR is covered up (reducing the light hitting it) its
• As a thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases resistance increases.
• As it gets colder, its resistance increases
The resistance through an LDR is dependent on the
intensity of light falling on it
The symbol for a thermistor

The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on the

temperature of it

Diagram showing an
LDR circuit
Sensing Circuit
Thermistors (or LDRs) may be used to create heat (or light)
sensitive circuits, which perform certain actions when the LDRs can be used in circuits where detecting changes
temperature (or light) reaches a certain level in light intensity are necessary (such as in
streetlamps)
• In the circuit shown, an LDR is used, along with a relay,
to control a bulb

• When it gets darker, the resistance of the LDR

increases

• This causes the potential difference across the

LDR to increase

• When this potential difference increases the

current in the coil (part of the relay) will increase

• When the current gets large enough the coil will

attract the switch, closing it and allowing a current
to pass through the right-hand side of the circuit

• Temperature controlled circuits may be created by

replacing the LDR with a thermistor, and replacing the
lamp with a suitable component such as a buzzer or
heater
Sensing Circuit
Diode Action A diode can be used to rectify an alternating current

• A diode is a component which only allows charge to flow in • If a diode is connected to an a.c. (alternating current) power
one direction through it supply, it will only allow a current half of the time. (This is called
rectification)
• If a power source is connected back to front, then there will be
no current

A diode is a component which only allows a current when

the potential difference is in the direction of the arrow

In order to have a current, the diode must point around the

circuit from positive to negative
Electrical Safety The risk of electrocution is indicated by hazard signs
Electrical Hazards
• Mains electricity is potentially lethal – potential differences as small as
50 volts can pose a serious hazard to individuals

Common Electrical hazards include:

• Damaged Insulation – If someone touches an exposed piece of

wire, they could be subjected to a lethal shock

• Overheating of cables – Passing too much current through too

small a wire (or leaving a long length of wire tightly coiled) can
lead to the wire overheating. This could cause a fire or melt the
insulations, exposing live wires

• Damp conditions – If moisture comes into contact with live

wires, the moisture could conduct electricity either causing a short
circuit within a device (which could cause a fire) or posing an
electrocution risk

• Excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads,

single and multiple sockets when using a mains supply - If
plugs or sockets become overloaded due to plugging in too many
components the heat created can cause fires
 The insulation covering each wire is color coded for easy identification:
Mains Circuit • Live wire – brown
• Neutral wire – blue
Mains electricity is the electricity generated by power stations
• Earth wire – green and yellow stripes
and transported around the country through the National Grid.
Everyone connects to the mains when plugging in an appliance
A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains:
such as a phone charger or kettle.
• Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.) supply.
• The domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz
and a potential difference of about 230 V.
• Mains electricity, being an alternating current, has the live
and neutral wires which deliver the electricity to the device.
The Earth wire is purely for safety.

The Live Wire

The live wire carries the alternating potential difference from the supply
to a circuit and is the most dangerous of the three wires. If it touches
Live & Neutral: the appliance without the Earth wire, it can cause electrocution.
All electrical appliances are connected to the mains using at Therefore, the live wire should always have a switch, to prevent the
least a live wire and a neutral wire. Most electrical appliances appliance being live all all times.
are connected to the mains using a three-core cable consisting
of: The Neutral Wire
• A live wire: The neutral wire forms the opposite end of the circuit to the live wire to
• A neutral wire complete the circuit. Because of its lower voltage, it is much less
• An Earth wire dangerous than the live wire.
Mains Circuit
Earthing
Insulation & Double Insulation
• Many electrical appliances have metal cases
• The conducting part of a wire is usually made of copper or
some other metal • This poses a potential safety hazard:
• If this comes into contact with a person, this poses a • If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with
risk of electrocution the case, the case would become electrified and anyone
who touched it would risk being electrocuted
• For this reason, the conducting part of wires are covered
with an insulating material, such as rubber for safety. • The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk

• If this happens:
• The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth

• It causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence

also in the live wire

• The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and

break

• This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance,

making it safe
Fuses and Trips Switches Choosing Which Fuse to Use

• A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of • Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) - in order
electricity to an appliance if the current becomes too to select the right fuse for the job, you need to know how much current
large (due to a fault or a surge) an appliance needs

• The circuit symbol for a fuse: • If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the
current can be calculated using the equation:

• The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the
• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains current needed by the appliance, without being too high - always
a thin metal wire. choose the next size up

• If the current in the wire becomes too large: Example:

• The wire heats up and melts
• This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit • Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps
and stopping the current
• A 3-ampere use would be too small - the fuse would blow as soon
• A trip switch, found in the Consumer Box (where the as the appliance was switched on
electricity enters the building) does the same job as a • A 13-ampere fuse would be too large - it would allow an extra 10
fuse amps to pass through the appliance before it finally blew
• When the current is too high the switch 'trips' • A 5-ampere fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next
(automatically flicks to the off position) size up
• This stops current flowing in that circuit