CHEMISTRY NOTES

GRADE 9

SECOND TERM

NAME: __________________________________________
WEEK 1&2: ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND MODELS OF THE ATOM
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
i. Explain the term atomic model.
ii. List the sub-particles of an atom
iii. Differentiate between nucleus and nucleon.
iv. Describe the structure of Rutherford’s model of the atom.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical
reaction.
Unstable atoms combine with other atoms to form a stable substance. When atoms
of the same element combine, a molecule is formed.
When atoms of different elements combine, a compound is formed.
Molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist alone without losing
its identity.
The number of atoms in a molecule of an element/compound is its atomicity.
Fundamental “Sub” Particles of Atoms
Particles Relative mass Charge Position
Proton 1 +ve Nucleus
Electron 1 -ve Around the nucleus
1840
Neutron 1 No charge Nucleus

IMPORTANT ATOMIC CONCEPTS

1. Atomic Number: The atomic number is the number of protons present in an
atom.
In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
2. Mass/nucleon Number: The mass number gives the arithmetic sum of the
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of elements. It gives the
mass of the atom i.e. atomic mass of the element. Mathematically:
Mass Number = Number of protons + number of neutrons
 ∴ No of neutrons = Mass number – number of protons.
3. Atomic Mass: Is the mass of 1 atom of an element. It is a whole number and does
not give the accurate mass of an atom because it does not account for the mass of
isotope atoms.
4. Relative atomic mass: It is defined as the number of times the average mass of one
atom of the element is heavier than one twelfth of the mass of one atom carbon –
12
Mathematically
Average mass of 1 atom of element
R.A.M = 1/12mass of 1 atom of carbon−12

5. Nuclide of Atom: A nuclide is an atomic species characterized by the specific

constitution of its nucleus, i.e., by its number of protons, its number of neutrons. It
is given by the symbol of an atom or by a letter, which shows or expresses the mass
number of the atom as the superscript number and the atomic number as subscript
number. E.g.
11 Na or 11 X where 23 = mass number and 11 = atomic number. The symbol or letter
23 23

17 X represent the nuclide of Cl atom.

35

ISOTOPY
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same proton (atomic) number
but different nucleon (mass) number.
Isotopy is the phenomenon whereby two or more atoms of the same element have
the same atomic numbers but different mass numbers.
The relationship between the isotopic nuclides of an element is called isotopy.
Examples of isotopes are:
17 Cl and 17 Cl
35 37

19 K and 19 K
39 41

29 Cu and 29 Cu
63 65

8O and 8O
18 16

1 H (proton), 1 H (deuterium) and 1 H (tritium)

1 2 3

NOTE: Isotopes of the same element are chemically alike and have similar chemical
properties because they contain same number of electrons which determines the
chemical properties of substances e.g. element or compound.

Calculations on isotopy
Example1. Determine the atomic compositions of copper with atomic number 29
and having isotopes 63Cu and 65Cu.
Isotopes No of protons No of electrons No of neutrons
63
Cu 29 29 34
65
Cu 29 29 36
 Number of neutrons = Mass number – Number of protons
In a neutral atom, number of protons = number of electrons
Example 2. The 2 isotopes of chlorine with mass numbers 35 and 37 exist in the ratio
of 3:1, the lighter being more abundant. What is the relative atomic mass of chlorine?
Solution:
35 37
Isotopes: Cl Cl
Isotopic ratio: 3 : 1
Sum of their ratio: 3 + 1 = 4
3
R.A.M. of chlorine = ( 4 x 35) +¿ x 37)
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5
Example 3:
If a sample of hydrogen contains 85% of 1H, 10% of 2H and 5% of 3H. Calculate the
relative atomic mass (RAM) of hydrogen.
Solution:
1 2
Isotopes: H H 3H
Relative abundance: 85% 10% 5%
Sum of their relative abundance: 85 + 10 + 5 = 100
85 10
R.A.M. of hydrogen = ( 100 x 1) + 100 x 2) +¿ x 3)
= 0.85 + 0.2 + 0.15
R.A.M. of hydrogen = 1.2

Example 4. If a sample of an element P exists in the ratio 1:2, calculate the relative
abundance of each isotope of P, given that the relative atomic mass of P is 41.
Solution:
Sum of ratios of isotopes: 2 + 1 = 3
Relative atomic mass of each isotope:
2
3
x 41 = 27.33
1
3
x 41 = 13.67
 ATOMIC MODELS
A model is a representation of a system in the real world. Models help us to
understand systems and their properties.

1. Democritus’ model
He said all matter is made of indivisible particles called Atomos (in ancient Greek)
meaning "that which cannot be further broken down into smaller pieces"

2. Dalton’s model
The solid sphere model: Atoms are seen as solid, indestructible spheres (like billiard
balls)

3. J. J. Thomson Atomic Model/Structure

The atomic model/structure of J. J. Thomson shows the positively charged protons
and the negatively charged electrons existing in a sphere.

Also called the raisin bun Model or the chocolate chip cookie model

4. Lord Rutherford Atomic Model (The Planetary Model)

The atomic model or atomic structure of Rutherford shows the nucleus consisting of
the protons and the neutrons at the centre of the atom and the negatively charged
electrons revolving round the nucleus in an empty space like a solar system.

5. Neil Bohr Atomic Model or Structure

The atomic model of Neil Bohr shows the nucleus consisting of the protons and the
neutron at the centre of the atoms surrounded by shells or main energy levels of
different quantity of energy where the electrons are located and restricted to.
WEEK 3: DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
i. Name the scientist that discovered EACH of electron, proton and neutron
ii. Describe TWO limitations of J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom
iii. Explain the cathode ray experiment of J.J. Thomson
iv. Draw the cathode ray tube.
v. Describe Rutherford’s model of the atom.
vi. Explain the alpha scattering experiment of Ernest Rutherford
vii. Give Two differences between J.J. Thomson’s model and Rutherford’s
model.
viii. Explain James Chadwick’s work that led to that discovery of the neutrons.

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS: J. J. Thomson’s cathode ray experiment

John Joseph Thompson (1856-1940) carried out his cathode ray experiment using
the Cathode ray tube (CRT). Cathode rays produced are invisible and can only be
detected by light emitted by the materials that they strike, called phosphors.
[Link]

Cathode rays show the following properties:

1. Cathode rays travel in straight lines. That is why they cast shadow of any solid
object placed in their path.
2. Cathode rays possess energy by the virtue of their mass and velocity. They set any
object placed on their path into motion.
3. Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles. They get deflected towards
the positive plate (anode) in an electrical field.
4. When they strike an object, a part of their kinetic energy is transferred to the
object. This causes a rise in the temperature of the object.
5. Cathode rays cause green fluorescence on glass surface.
6. Cathode rays can penetrate through thin metallic sheets.
7. Cathode rays ionize the gases through which they travel.
8. When they fall on certain metals such as copper, X-rays are produced.
9. Cathode rays travel with speed nearly equal to that of light.
 J.J. Thomson (1856-1940) concluded that these particles that are located in all
atoms. It was George Stoney who first gave the term electrons to the cathode rays.

J. J. Thomson’s model (Plum pudding model)

Discovery of the Proton: Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment

In 1909, Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) shot a beam of alpha particles at a thin
piece of gold foil. He observed that the majority of the alpha particles went through
the foil; however, some particles were slightly deflected, a small number were
greatly deflected, and another small number were thrown back in nearly the
direction from which they had come.

[Link]

Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford’s model (Planetary model)

Discovery of Neutron
Scientists soon realized that the atomic model offered by Rutherford is not
complete. Various experiments showed that mass of the nucleus is approximately
twice than the number of protons. What is the origin of this additional mass?
Rutherford postulated the existence of some neutral particle having mass similar to
proton but there was no direct experimental evidence.
In 1933, James Chadwick (1891-1974) discovered a new type of radiation that
consisted of neutral particles. It was discovered that these neutral particles come
from the nucleus of the atom. This last discovery completed the atomic model.

Schematic diagram for the experiment that led to the discovery of neutrons by
Chadwick.

James Chadwick

WEEK 4 & 5: MAKING SALTS

PREPARATION OF SOME SALTS BY THE REACTIONS OF METALS OR METAL CARBONATES WITH ACID

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:

Explain the term ‘salt’ as a compound formed from neutralization reactions

i.
Explain the steps in naming any given salts
ii.
Describe THREE methods of making salts
iii.
Explain TWO methods of recovering salts from their solutions.
iv.
Naming salts
A salt is any compound formed by the neutralization of an acid by a base.

The name of a salt has two parts. The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate. The

second part comes from the acid.

You can always work out the name of the salt by looking at the reactants:

nitric acid always produces salts that end in nitrate and contain the nitrate ion, NO –
1. 3
hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain the chloride ion, Cl–
2.
sulfuric acid always produces salts that end in sulphate and contain the sulphate ion, SO 2–
3. 4
phosphoric acid always produces salts that end in phosphate and contain the phosphate ion, PO 3–
4. 4
For example, if potassium oxide reacts with sulfuric acid, the products will be potassium sulphate and water.

MAKING SALTS

Acids react with metals, bases and carbonates to produce salts. Neutralization is the reaction between an acid

and a base.

MAKING A SALT FROM REACTIVE METALS AND ACIDS

Acids will react with reactive metals, such as magnesium and zinc, to make a salt and hydrogen.

acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

hydrochloric acid + zinc → zinc chloride + hydrogen

2HCl + Zn → ZnCl + H
2 2
The hydrogen causes bubbling during the reaction, and can be detected using a burning splint which produces a

squeaky pop sound.

In general, the more reactive the metal, the faster the reaction. This is indicated by more bubbles being given off

per second from the metals with higher reactivity.

Also note that the reaction of metals with acids is exothermic (i.e. heat energy is given out).

MAKING A SALT FROM ACIDS AND METAL CARBONATES

When acids react with carbonates, such as calcium carbonate (found in chalk, limestone and marble), a salt,

water and carbon dioxide are made.

acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

sulfuric acid + iron (II) carbonate → iron (II) sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

H SO + FeCO → FeSO + H O + CO
2 4 3 4 2 2
The carbon dioxide causes bubbling during the reaction, which is observed as fizzing. It can be detected by

passing the gas through limewater, which will go cloudy. The sign that the reaction has stopped is that the

reaction stops fizzling.

You filter the mixture to remove the excess metal carbonate, and then evaporate the water in the filtrate to leave

the salt behind.

The reaction of metal carbonates with acids is exothermic (i.e. heat energy is given out).

Recovering the salt from its solution

To obtain the pure salt from the solution, we need to remove some of the water. The methods used to recover a

salt from its solution are

1. Evaporation for salts that can withstand strong heating i.e. will not decompose when heated strongly
e.g. chlorides.

Warm the salt solution by using a Bunsen burner to evaporate some of the water. You get larger crystals if you

evaporate the water slowly.

2. Crystallization for salts that cannot withstand strong heating e.g. sulphates.
ASSIGNMENT:

1. Outline TWO differences between evaporation and crystallization.

2. Describe the chemical test for carbon dioxide
3. While making a salt from acids and metal carbonates, the sign that the reaction has stopped is that the
reaction stops fizzling.

a. Briefly explain why fizzling stops at a point.

b. State TWO precautions that must be observed during the experiment