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Unit 4 Notes

This document outlines the fundamentals of algebraic structures, including definitions, properties of binary operations, and various types such as groups, subgroups, and cyclic groups. It also covers concepts like cosets, normal subgroups, permutations, group homomorphisms, and the basics of rings and fields. Key theorems and properties, such as Lagrange's theorem and the characteristics of abelian groups, are also discussed.

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22 views3 pages

Unit 4 Notes

This document outlines the fundamentals of algebraic structures, including definitions, properties of binary operations, and various types such as groups, subgroups, and cyclic groups. It also covers concepts like cosets, normal subgroups, permutations, group homomorphisms, and the basics of rings and fields. Key theorems and properties, such as Lagrange's theorem and the characteristics of abelian groups, are also discussed.

Uploaded by

effortelevationofficial
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

UNIT–4: ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES (Styled Notes)

1. Algebraic Structures — Definition


 • An algebraic structure consists of a set and one or more binary operations.
 • Examples: (ℤ, +), (ℝ, ×), (G, ∗).
 • Binary operation: combines two elements from a set and returns another element of
the same set.

Properties of Binary Operations


 • Closure: a∗b ∈ S
 • Associativity: (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c)
 • Identity element: a∗e = a
 • Inverse element: a∗a⁻¹ = e
 • Commutativity: a∗b = b∗a
 • Distributivity: a(b+c)=ab+ac

Types of Algebraic Structures


 • Groupoid – closure only
 • Semigroup – closure + associativity
 • Monoid – semigroup + identity
 • Group – monoid + inverses
 • Abelian group – group + commutativity

2. Groups
 • A group satisfies closure, associativity, identity, and inverse.
 • Abelian group: operation is commutative.
 • Cancellation laws:
 - a∗b = a∗c ⇒ b = c
 - b∗a = c∗a ⇒ b = c

3. Subgroups
 • H is a subgroup of G if:
 -H≠∅
 - Identity ∈ H
 - Closed under operation
 - Closed under inverses
 • Quick test: a,b ∈ H ⇒ a∗b⁻¹ ∈ H
 • Intersection of subgroups is a subgroup.
4. Order
 • Order of group |G| = number of elements in G.
 • Order of element a = smallest n such that aⁿ = e.

5. Cyclic Groups
 • G is cyclic if G = ⟨a⟩ for some element a.
 • Properties:
 - Every cyclic group is abelian
 - All subgroups of cyclic groups are cyclic
 - Number of generators = φ(n)
 - Groups of prime order are cyclic.

6. Cosets & Lagrange’s Theorem


 • Left coset: aH = {ah}
 • Right coset: Ha = {ha}
 • Properties:
 - All cosets have same size as H
 - Cosets are identical or disjoint
 - Cosets partition G
 • Lagrange’s theorem: |H| divides |G|.

7. Normal Subgroups
 • H is normal (H ⊲ G) if gH = Hg or gHg⁻¹ = H.
 • Normal subgroup properties:
 - Kernel of homomorphism is normal
 - Intersection of normal subgroups is normal.

8. Permutation & Symmetric Groups


 • Permutation: bijection f: S → S
 • Symmetric group Sₙ: all permutations of n elements (|Sₙ| = n!)
 • Cycle notation: (1 3 2)
 • Cyclic permutation: a single cycle.

9. Group Homomorphisms
 • f: G → G′ is homomorphism if f(a∗b)=f(a)f(b).
 • Properties:
 - f(e)=e′
 - f(a⁻¹)=(f(a))⁻¹
 - Kernel is a normal subgroup
 - If bijective → isomorphism.

10. Rings & Fields


 • Ring (R, +, ×):
 Under + → abelian group
 Under × → associative, closed
 • Types:
 - Commutative ring
 - Ring with unity
 - Zero divisors: ab=0 though a,b≠0
 - Integral domain: commutative, unity, no zero divisors
 - Field: every non-zero element invertible
 • ℤₚ (p prime) is always a field.

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