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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS — EXAM REVIEWER
(Topics: Atmosphere, Water, Soil Chemistry)
I. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
(Based on Chem 117 Lecture 21)
1. What Is the Atmosphere?
● The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding Earth.
● It gives us the air we breathe, protects us from the Sun’s radiation, and keeps Earth warm
enough to live on.
2. Layers of the Atmosphere
. Troposphere – closest to Earth; where we live and where weather happens.
. Stratosphere – contains the ozone layer that protects us from UV rays.
. Mesosphere – where meteors burn up.
. Thermosphere – where auroras form.
. Exosphere – the outermost layer, gradually fading into space.
Main Gases:
● Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon and Carbon Dioxide (1%), plus small amounts of water
vapor and dust.
3. Protection from the Sun: Photodissociation & Photoionization
● The upper atmosphere absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun.
● Photodissociation: When UV light breaks apart molecules.
Example: O₂ + UV → 2O
● Photoionization: When UV light removes an electron from an atom.
Example: O₂ + UV → O₂⁺ + e⁻
These reactions protect us because the UV energy gets used up in breaking bonds — it doesn’t
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reach Earth’s surface.
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4. Ozone Formation (The Ozone Layer)
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● In the stratosphere, some UV rays split oxygen molecules (O₂) into single oxygen atoms (O).
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● These atoms combine with other O₂ molecules to form ozone (O₃):
O + O₂ → O₃
● Ozone absorbs more UV rays, creating a natural UV shield for life on Earth.
5. Smog and Air Pollution
● When we burn fuel (like in cars or factories), nitrogen and oxygen react to form nitrogen
oxides (NO and NO₂).
● Sunlight breaks NO₂ into NO and atomic oxygen (O), which combines with O₂ to form ozone
(O₃) near the ground.
● This ozone mixes with smoke and chemicals, forming smog — the brownish haze that irritates
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eyes and lungs.
6. Acid Rain
● When fuels with sulfur or nitrogen are burned, they make gases like SO₂ and NOₓ.
● These gases mix with water in the air to form acids:
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄ (sulfuric acid)
NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ (nitric acid)
● The rain that falls is acidic, which can damage plants, soil, buildings, and aquatic life.
7. Common Air Pollutants
Pollutant Main Source Harmful Effects
Particulates (PM2.5) Smoke, dust Lung problems
Sulfur oxides (SO₂) Coal & oil Causes acid rain
Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) Cars, engines Smog, acid rain
Carbon monoxide (CO) Incomplete burning Prevents oxygen transport
in blood
Ozone (O₃) Reaction of NOₓ & VOCs Irritates lungs
VOCs (Volatile Organic Solvents, factories Some are toxic or cancer-
Compounds) causing
8. Greenhouse Effect & Climate Change
● Greenhouse gases (like CO₂, CH₄, and H₂O) trap heat from the Sun.
● This is good — it keeps Earth warm enough for life.
● But too many greenhouse gases cause global warming, making Earth’s climate hotter and
more unstable.
Effects:
● Melting ice caps
● Rising sea levels
● Stronger storms and droughts
Solutions:
● Save energy
● Use renewable sources (solar, wind)
● Plant trees to absorb CO₂
II. THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER
(Based on Chem 117 Lecture 22)
1. Structure and Importance
● A water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (H₂O).
● Its shape is bent, and it’s polar, meaning one side is slightly positive and the other is slightly
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negative.
● Because of this, water can form hydrogen bonds, giving it special properties.
Water’s unique properties:
. Ice floats – solid water is less dense than liquid water.
. Cohesion – water molecules stick to each other (surface tension).
. Temperature moderation – water absorbs heat slowly, helping keep Earth’s temperature
stable.
. Good solvent – dissolves many substances (like salts, sugar).
. Self-ionization – water can split slightly into H⁺ and OH⁻ ions.
2. Types of Natural Water
Type Example Notes
Surface water Rivers, lakes Easily polluted
Groundwater Wells, aquifers Main source of drinking
water
Seawater Oceans Too salty to drink
Rainwater Precipitation May be acidic due to air
pollution
3. Qualities of Good Water
Good-quality water should be clear, odorless, tasteless, and safe to drink.
Important properties:
● Turbidity: cloudiness caused by particles
● Color: due to minerals or organic matter
● Odor/Taste: caused by chemicals or decay
● pH: measures acidity or basicity (should be near neutral)
● Hardness: caused by calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺)
4. Water Treatment
To make water safe:
. Chlorination – adds chlorine to kill bacteria (cheap but may form harmful byproducts).
. Ozonation – uses ozone to disinfect (cleaner but expensive).
. Filtration & aeration – removes solids and improves taste.
. Activated carbon – removes odor and color.
5. Hard and Soft Water
● Hard water: contains lots of calcium and magnesium.
○ Forms soap scum, scale in pipes, and kettles.
● Soft water: fewer minerals; easier for cleaning.
How to soften water:
● Lime treatment: adds lime to remove hardness.
● Ion exchange: replaces Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ with Na⁺.
● Reverse osmosis (RO): filters out almost all impurities.
6. Wastewater and Pollution
Sources: factories, farms, homes, rain runoff.
Types:
● Graywater: from baths, sinks, laundry.
● Blackwater: from toilets and kitchens.
Treatment process:
. Pretreatment: removes large debris.
. Primary: settles out solids.
. Secondary: bacteria break down waste.
. Tertiary: disinfects and removes nutrients.
III. SOIL CHEMISTRY
(Based on Soil Chemistry Introduction)
1. What Is Soil Chemistry?
It’s the study of the chemical makeup and reactions in soil that affect how plants grow, how
nutrients move, and how pollutants are controlled.
2. Types of Soil
Type Description Notes
Sandy Large particles, drains Poor in nutrients
quickly
Clay Tiny particles, holds water Rich in nutrients but
compact
Silt Smooth, holds moisture Can compact easily
Loam Mix of sand, silt, clay Best for crops
Peaty Dark, organic, holds water Often acidic
Chalky Alkaline, stony May lack nutrients
Saline Has salts Bad for most plants
Laterite Red, rich in iron Found in tropics, low
fertility
3. Importance of Soil Chemistry
● Provides nutrients for plant growth.
● Filters and cleans water.
● Helps control pollution by trapping harmful substances.
● Keeps soil healthy and fertile for farming.
4. Soil Components
● Minerals: from rocks; contain nutrients.
● Organic matter: from decayed plants/animals; improves soil structure.
● Water: dissolves nutrients for plants.
● Air: needed for roots and microbes.
● pH: affects nutrient availability (most plants like pH 6–7.5).
5. Plant Nutrients
Macronutrients (needed in large amounts):
Nutrient Function Deficiency Symptom
Nitrogen (N) Makes proteins & Yellowing leaves
chlorophyll
Phosphorus (P) Root & seed growth Purple leaves
Potassium (K) Water control & strength Brown leaf edges
Calcium (Ca) Cell walls Misshapen fruit
Magnesium (Mg) Part of chlorophyll Yellow between veins
Sulfur (S) Makes proteins Yellow young leaves
6. Soil pH and Its Effect
● Acidic soil (pH < 7): good for micronutrients but bad for some crops.
● Alkaline soil (pH > 7): good for macronutrients but lacks iron and zinc.
Adjusting pH:
● Add lime to raise pH (less acidic).
● Add sulfur or organic matter to lower pH (more acidic).
7. Ion Exchange in Soil
● Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): ability to hold positive ions (like Ca²⁺, K⁺).
○ High CEC = fertile soil.
○ Clay and organic soils have high CEC.
● Anion Exchange Capacity (AEC): ability to hold negative ions (like NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻).
○ Happens mostly in acidic soils.
Example:
When a root releases H⁺ ions, they replace K⁺ or Ca²⁺ ions on soil particles, letting plants absorb
these nutrients.
8. Adsorption & Desorption
● Adsorption: nutrients or pollutants stick to soil particles.
● Desorption: they are released into soil water for plants to absorb.
These processes prevent nutrients from washing away too fast and keep soil fertile.
9. Soil and the Environment
● Soil acts as a natural filter for water.
● Phytoremediation: some plants can absorb toxic metals from polluted soils to clean the
environment.
