Formal Language and Automata Theory

Chapter 7
Limitations of Finite Automata (lecture 11 and 12)

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Limitations of FAs

Problem: Is there any set not regular ? ans: yes!

example: B = {anbn | n 0 } = {e,ab,aabb,aaabbb,}

Intuition: Any machine accepting B must be able to

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The proof

Lemma 1: Let M = (Q, S, d, s, F) be any DFA accepting B. Then for all non-negative numbers m, n , m n implies D(s, am) D(s, an). pf: Assume D(s, am) = D(s, an) from some m and n. Then D(s, ambn) = D( D(s, am), bn) = D( D(s, an), bn) = D(s, an bn)F It implies ambn L(M) = B. But ambn B since m n. Hence D(s, am) D(s, an) for all m n. Theorem: B is not regular.
Pf: Assume B is regular and accepted by some DFA M with k states. But by Lemma1, M must have an infinite number of states (Ex: to accept anbn for any n>0 it must have at least n states). This contradicts the requirement that the state set Q of M is a finite set.
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Another nonregular set

C= {a2n | n > 0} = {a, aa, aaaa, aaaaaaaa, } is nonregular pf: assume C is regular and is accepted by a DFA with k states. Let n > k and x = a2n C. Now consider the sequence of states: D(s,a), D(s,aa),., D(s,an), by pigeonhole principle, there are 0<i<i+d n s.t. D(s,ai) = D(s,ai+d) [ = p] let 2n = i + d + m. => D(s, a2n+d) = D(s, aiadadad) = D(s,aiadam) = D(s, a2n) F. But since 2n + d < 2n + n < 2n+2n = 2 n+1, which is the next power of 2 > 2n, Hence a2n+d C => the DFA also accepts a string C, a contradiction! Hence C is not regular.

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Intuition behind the Pumping Lemma for FA

For an FA to accept a long string s ( its number of states), the visited path for s must contains a cycle and hence can be cut or repeated to accept also many new strings.
repeat

cut

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The pumping lemma

Theorem 11.1: If A is a regular set, then (P): $ k > 0 s.t. for any string xyz A with |y| k, there exists a decomposition y = uvw s.t. v e and for all i 0, the string xuviwz A.
pf: Similar to the previous example. Let k = |Q| where Q is the set of states in any FA accepting A. Also let s and F be the initial and set of final states of the FA, respectively. Now if there is a string xyz A with |y| k, consider the sequence of states: D(s,xy0), D(s, xy1), D(s,xy2), D(s, xyk), where yj (j = 0..k) denote the prefix of y of the first j symbols. Since there are k+1 items in the sequence, each a state in Q, by pigeonhole principle, there must exist two items D(s, xym), D(s, xyn) corresponding to the same state. Without loss of generality, assume m < n. Now let u = ym, yn = u v and y= uvw. We thus have D(s, xuwz) = D(s, xym wz) = D(s, xynwz) = D(s, xuvwz) F Likewise, for all j > 1, D(s, xuvjwz) = D(xuv vj-1 wz) = D(xuvj-1 wz) = = D(xuvj-2 wz) = =D(s,xuvwz) F. QED
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The pumping lemma

Theorem 11.1: Let A be any language. If A is a regular, then (P): $ k > 0 s.t. for any string xyz A with |y| k, there exist a decomposition y = uvw s.t. v e and for all i 0, the string xuviwz A. Theorem 11.2 (pumping lemma, the contropositive form) If A is any language satisfying the property (~P): k> 0 $ xyz A s.t. |y| k and u,v,w with uvw = y and v e , there exists an i 0 s.t. xuvivw A, then A is not regular. [ ~P means for any k > 0, there is a substring of length k [of a member] of A, a cut or a certain duplicates of the middle of any 3segment decomposition of which will produce a string A. ]
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Game semantics for quantification

1. Two players: You (want to show a theorem T holds) Demon (the opponent want to show T does not hold) rules: forall x D pick a number for x there is y Y choose a numebr for y. Result: Y win if the resulting proposition holds D wins o/w T holds if Y has a winning strategy (always wins).

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Examples

Show that for all x there is y with x < y. pf: D: choose any number k for x. Y: let y be k + 1 Since Y always wins in this game. The result is proved.

Show that for all x there is y with y < x in positive intergers. pf: D: pick number 0 for x Y: pick a number m for y. D wins since ~( 0 < m). Hence the theorem is not proved.

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Game-theoretical proof of nonregularity of a set

1. Two players: You (want to show that ~P holds and A is not regular) Demon (the opponent want to show that P holds) 2 The game proceeds as follows: 1. D picks a k> 0 (if A is regular, Ds best strategy is to pick k =
#states of a FA accepting A) 2. Y picks x,y,x with xyz A and |y| k.

3. D picks u,v,w s.t. y = uvw and v e. 4. Y picks i 0 3. Finally Y wins if xuviwz A and D wins if xuviwz A. 4. By Theorem 11.2, A is not regular if there is a winning strategy according to which Y always win. Note: P is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the regularity of A (i.e., there is nonregular set A satisfying P).
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Using the pumping lemma

Ex1: Show the set A = {anbm | n m } is not regular. the proof: 1. D gives k [for any k > 0] 2. Y pick x = ak, y = bk, z = e [$ xyz in A with |y| k] ==> xyz = akbk A 3. D decompose y = uvw with [for all uvw with uvw=y and |u|=j, |v|=m > 0 and |w|= n ve] 4. Y take i = 2. [$ i 0 s.t. xuviwz A] => xuv2wz = akbjb2mbn = akbk+m A => Y wins. Hence A is not regular. Ex2: C = {an! | n 0 } is not regular. pf: similar to Ex1. Left as an exercise. hint: for any k > 0 D chooses, let xyz =akxk! ak! e and let i = 0.
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Other techniques:

Using closure property of regular sets. Ex3: D = { x {a,b}* | #a(x) = #b(x) } = {e, ab, ba, aabb, abab. baba, bbaa, abba, baab, } is not regular. (Why ?) if regular => D a*b* = {anbn | n 0 } = B is regular. But B is not regular, D thus is not regular. [H2E2:] A: any language; if A is regular, then rev(A) =def {xnxn-1x1 | x1x2xn A} is regular. Ex4: A = {anbm | m n } is not regular. pf: If A is regular => rev(A) and h((rev(A)) = {anbm | n m} is regular, where h(a) = b and h(b) = a. => A h(rev(A)) = {anbn | n 0} is regular, a contradiction!
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