Chapter 2
Charles Coulomb (17361806)
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887)
Fundamentals of Electric Circuit Part 1
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Introduction
This chapter presents the fundamental laws of Circuit Analysis. We will define the charge, current, voltage, and power. We will study the basic laws of electrical circuit analysis called Kirchhoffs Laws. The basic circuit elements are introduced (current and voltage source and resistor). Ohoms Laws.
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2.1 Charge, Current, And Kirchhoffs Current Law
The building block of a matter is the Atom. The Atom consists of a Nucleus (Neutrons and Protons) surrounded by Electrons. The fundamental electric quantity is Charge. Electron and Proton are called charge-carrying particle in an atom. The smallest amount of charge that exists is the charge carried by an electron or proton, equal to (in Coulomb) qe = -1.602 x 10-19 C, qp = - qe
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Electrons and Protons are often referred to as Elementary Charges. Electric Current: is the time rate of change passing through a predetermined area. This area is the cross-sectional area of a metal wire. The unit of current is C/s, or Amperes. where 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/second.
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q i t
where we imagine q units of charge flowing through the crosssectional area A in t units of time, and in differential form is shown below.
dq i dt
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The EE Convention states that: the positive direction of current flow is that of Positive Charges. In metallic conductors, however, current is carried by Negative Charges. These charges are the free electrons in the conduction band, which are only weakly attracted to the atomic structure in metallic elements and are therefore easily displaced in the presence of electric fields.
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Ex 2.1: Charge and Current In A Conductor
Find the total charge carrier Q in a cylindrical conductor (solid wire) and compute the current I flowing in the wire if: Conductor length: L = 1 m. Conductor diameter: 2r = 2103 m. Charge density: n = 1029 carriers/m3. Charge of one electron: qe =1.602 10-19. Charge carrier velocity: u = 19.910-6 m/s.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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Now, we move one step forward, We need a flowing current in a conductor. In order for current to flow there must exist a Closed Circuit.
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A simple electrical circuit, composed of a battery (e.g., a dry-cell or alkaline 1.5 V battery) and a light bulb. Note that the circuit current, i , flowing from the battery to the light bulb is equal to the current flowing from the light bulb to the battery.
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Hence, no current (and therefore no charge) is lost around the closed circuit. This principle is known as Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL). KCL states that, because charge cannot be created but must be conserved, the sum of the currents at a Node must equal zero. Node: is the junction of two or more conductors.
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We usually defines currents entering a node as being Negative and currents exiting the node as being Positive. Thus, the resulting expression for node 1 of the circuit shown is
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Ex 2.2 KCL Applied To An Automotive Electrical Harness
Figure 2.4 shows an automotive battery connected to a variety of circuits in an automobile. The circuits include headlights, taillights, starter motor, fan, power locks, and dashboard panel. The battery must supply enough current to independently satisfy the requirements of each of the Load circuits. Apply KCL to the automotive circuits.
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(a)
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2.2 Voltage And Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
It must take some Work, or Energy, for the charge to move between two points in a circuit, say, from point a to point b. Voltage: is the total work per unit charge associated with the motion of charge between two points. The units of voltage are those of energy per unit charge, or simply Volt. 1 Volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb.
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The Voltage, or Potential Difference, between two points in a circuit indicates the energy required to move charge from one point to the other. The polarity, of the voltage is closely tied to whether energy is being dissipated or generated in the process. No energy is lost or created in an electric circuit. This principle is known as Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL).
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KVL states that, the sum of all voltages associated with sources must equal the sum of the load voltages. So that the net voltage around a closed circuit is zero.
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Where the vn are the individual voltages around the closed circuit. For the circuit shown, it must follow from KVL that the work generated by the battery is equal to the energy dissipated in the bulb in order to sustain the current flow and to convert the electric energy to heat and light, hence or
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One may think of the work done in moving a charge from point a to point b and the work done moving it back from b to a as corresponding directly to the voltages across individual circuit elements. Let Q be the total charge that moves around the circuit per unit time, giving rise to the current i. Then the work done in moving Q from b to a (i.e., across the battery) is
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Similarly, work is done in moving Q from a to b, that is, across the light bulb. Voltage represents the potential energy between two points in a circuit. If we remove the light bulb from its connections to the battery, there still exists a voltage across the (now disconnected) terminals b and a.
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The presence of a voltage, v2, across the open terminals a and b indicates the potential energy that can enable the motion of charge. Once a closed circuit is established to allow current to flow.
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The battery by virtue of an electrochemically induced separation of charge, a 1.5-V potential difference is generated. The potential generated by the battery may be used to move charge in a circuit. The rate at which charge is moved once a closed circuit is established (i.e., the current drawn by the circuit connected to the battery) depends now on the circuit element we choose to connect to the battery.
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Hence, the voltage across the battery represents the potential for providing energy to a circuit. Then, battery is a source of energy. Also, the voltage across the light bulb indicates the amount of work done in dissipating energy. In the first case, energy is generated; in the second, it is consumed.
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This fundamental distinction requires attention in defining the sign (polarity) of voltages. We will refer to elements that provide energy as sources, and to elements that dissipate energy as loads. Standard symbols for a generalized sourceand-load circuit are shown in Figure 2.7 which is symbolic representation of the circuit shown in Figure 2.5.
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Ex 2.3: KVL For The Electric Vehicle Battery Pack
Figure 2.8a depicts the battery pack in the Smokin Buckeye electric race car. Apply KVL to the series connection of 31, 12-V batteries that make up the battery supply for the electric vehicle. Figure 2.8(b) depicts the equivalent electrical circuit, illustrating how the voltages supplied by the battery are applied across the electric drive that powers the vehicles 150-kW threephase induction motor.
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The application of KVL to the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.8(b) requires that:
Vbatt n Vdrive 0
n 1
31
Vdrive Vbatt n
n 1
31
Vdrive 3112 372 V
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2.3 Ideal Voltage And Current Sources
Ideal Source: is a source that can provide an arbitrary (constant) amount of energy. There are two types of ideal sources: 1. Voltage Sources. 2. Current Sources. Dry-cell, alkaline, and lead-acid batteries are all voltage sources (they are not ideal, of course).
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You might have to think harder to come up with a physical example that approximates the behavior of an ideal current source. However, For an ideal current source, assume a voltage source connected in series with a circuit element that has a large resistance to the flow of current from the source provides a nearly constant though smallcurrent and therefore acts very nearly like an ideal current source.
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2.3.1 Ideal Voltage Sources
An ideal voltage source provides a prescribed voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current flowing through it. The amount of current supplied by the source is determined by the circuit connected to it. Figure 2.9 depicts various symbols for voltage sources.
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Note that the output voltage of an ideal source can be a function of time. Uppercase for DC, and lowercase for AC (time varying).
Figure 2.9 Ideal voltage sources
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By convention the direction of positive current flow out of a voltage source is out of the positive terminal. Figure 2.10 shows the source-load representations of an electrical circuit. It depicts the connection of an energy source with a passive circuit (i.e., a circuit that can absorb and dissipate energy for example, the headlights and light bulb of our earlier examples).
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2.3.2 Ideal Current Sources
An ideal current source provides a prescribed (constant) current to any circuit connected to it. To do so, it must be able to generate an arbitrary voltage across its terminals..
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Figure 2.11 Symbol for Ideal current source
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2.3.3 Dependent (Controlled) Sources
The sources described so far have the capability of generating a prescribed voltage or current independent of any other element within the circuit. Thus, they are termed Independent Sources. There exists another category of sources, however, whose output (current or voltage) is a function of some other voltage or current in a circuit.
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These are called Dependent (or Controlled) sources. There are Two types of dependent voltage source: Voltage controlled voltage source. Current controlled voltage source. There are two types of dependent current source: Voltage controlled current source. Current controlled current source.
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1. 2.
1. 2.
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The symbols typically used to represent dependent sources are depicted in Figure 2.12 In Figure 2.12; the table illustrates the relationship between the source voltage or current and the voltage or current it depends on vx or ix , respectively, which can be any voltage or current in the circuit.
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2.4 Electric Power And Sign Convention
Voltage: is the work per unit charge. Power: is the work done per unit time. Thus, the power, P , either generated or dissipated by a circuit element can be represented by the following relationship:
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Thus, the electrical power generated by an active element, or that dissipated or stored by a passive element, is equal to the product of the voltage across the element and the current flowing through it.
(joules/second, or watts)
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Power is a signed quantity (positive or negative). This distinction can be understood with reference to Figure 2.13. First, we need to assign the polarities of the circuit elements, and the direction of the current through these elements. The conventional way is shown in Figure 2.13, the procedure is as follow:
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Figure 2.13 The passive sign convention
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1. Choose an arbitrary direction of current flow. 2. Label polarities of all active elements (voltage and current sources). 3. Current is usually leaving the positive terminal of the source. 4. Assign polarities to all passive elements (resistors and other loads); for passive elements, current always flows into the positive terminal.
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Thus, from figure 2.13, the polarity of the voltage across the source and the direction of the current through it indicate that the voltage source is doing work in moving charge from a lower potential to a higher potential (power is generated). On the other hand, the load is dissipating power, because the direction of the current indicates that charge is being displaced from a higher potential to a lower potential.
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The Passive Sign Convention: is that the power dissipated by a load is a positive quantity (or, conversely, that the power generated by a source is a positive quantity). In other words, if current flows from a higher to a lower voltage (+ to ), the power is dissipated and will be a positive quantity.
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EX 2.4: Use of the Passive Sign Convention
Apply the passive sign convention to the circuit of Figure 2.14. Assume that the voltage drop across Load 1 is 8 V, that across Load 2 is 4 V; the current in the circuit is 0.1 A. Solution: We can assign two different directions for the current as shown in Figure 2.15.
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Current direction a) clockwise, b) counterclockwise
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This is the first step in the passive sign convention. According to each case, as a second step we need to assign the polarities to each circuit element. Case 1: Assume clockwise current direction: Thus, direction of the current is consistent with the true polarity of the voltage source. The source voltage will be a positive quantity.
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Since current flows from to + through the battery, the power dissipated by this element will be a negative quantity: PB = vB i = (12 V) (0.1 A) = 1.2 W That is, the battery generates 1.2 W. The power dissipated by the two loads will be a positive quantity in both cases, since current flows from + to : P1 = v1 i = (8 V) (0.1 A) = 0.8 W P2 = v2 i = (4 V) (0.1 A) = 0.4 W
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Case 2: Assume counterclockwise current direction: In this case, the current is not consistent with the true polarity of the voltage source, the source voltage will be a negative quantity. Since current flows from + to through the battery, the power dissipated by this element will be a positive quantity; however, the source voltage is a negative quantity: PB = vB i = (12 V) (0.1 A) = 1.2 W
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That is, the battery generates 1.2 W, as in the previous case. The power dissipated by the two loads will be a positive quantity in both cases, since current flows from + to : P1 = v1 i = (8 V) (0.1 A) = 0.8 W P2 = v2 i = (4 V) (0.1 A) = 0.4 W Note that energy is conserved, as the sum of the power dissipated by source and loads is zero. Power supplied always equals power dissipated.
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2.5 Circuit Elements And Their i-v Characteristics
Figure 2.17 depicts a generalized circuit element: the variable i and v are the current through and voltage across the element respectively. If the voltage applied to the element were varied and the resulting current measured, then, it is possible to construct a functional relationship between voltage and current. This relation is called i-v characteristic (volt-ampere characteristic).
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Figure 2.18 depicts an experiment for empirically determining the i-v characteristic of a tungsten filament light bulb. A variable voltage source is used to apply various voltages, and the current flowing through the element is measured for each applied voltage. Hence, we can express the i-v characteristic of a circuit element in functional form: i = f(v) or v = g(i) Note that, since the bulb is passive element, hence, the power dissipated is positive. 16/08/2013 Bahman R. Alyaei 56
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Note that, when a positive current flows through the bulb, the voltage is positive, and that, conversely, a negative current flow corresponds to a negative voltage. In both cases the power dissipated by the device is a positive quantity.
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The simplest form of the i-v characteristic for a circuit element is a straight line: i = kv, k is a constant Figure 2.19 depicts the i-v characteristic of an ideal voltage and current source. An ideal voltage source generates a prescribed voltage independent of the current drawn from the load. The converse represent the current source.
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Figure 2.19 i-v characteristics of ideal sources
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