PAKISTAN WATER AND POWER DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY
WAPDA ENGINEERING ACADEMY, FAISALABAD.
POWER TRANSFORMER
BY RIFAQAT ALI SHAH SENIOR ENGINEER
INTRODUCTION DEFINITION
Power Transformer is a static electrical device by electromagnetic induction it transforms electrical power from one or more circuits to one or more other circuits at the same frequency usually with a change in voltage and current. Specially designed transformers can also affect a change in phase angle between input and output voltages.
IMPORTANCE OF POWER TRANSFORMER IN POWER SYSTEM
The invention of transformer had made it possible to efficiently transmit large amounts of electrical power over long distances. In the transmission of electric power the function of the transformer is to raise or step up the voltage at the generator to a much higher value and to step down the voltage to the utilization value at the load center where the power is used. This reduces the size of transmission conductor and hence installation and maintenance costs are reduced.
A number of transformers are to be installed in between generation and utilization points such as step up transformers from generation voltage to primary transmission voltage step down transformer from primary transmission to secondary transmission voltage, from secondary transmission voltage to H.T. distribution voltage, from H.T. distribution voltage to L.T. distribution i.e. utilization voltage. Thus in transmitting power from generators to load centers transformers play a vital part. Power transformer are of higher KVA ratings (more than 500KVA) and are operated at high KV ratings. These are used to step up and step down the voltage at Grid Stations.
Voltage ratings of power transformers installed in WAPDA power system are 500/220 KV, 220KV/132KV, 132KV/11.5KV, 132KV/66KV, 66KV/11KV, 132KV/11KV whereas generated voltages of 6KV to 30KV are also stepped up, through power transformers to EHV & HV transmission levels at generating stations.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER
An alternating electric current flowing through a conductor produces a varying magnetic field. If another conductor is introduced into that field an e.m.f is induced on to that conductor if a second conductor is introduced into the field that will also have an e.m.f. induced in it. If the two conductors placed in the magnetic field of first conductor are connected in series, than the e.m.f. across the two conductor will be twice that of one conductor. By measurement we will see that the voltage on two turns is twice that on one turn. Similarly with three turns it will be three times that on one turn. Thus the voltage varies as the number of turns.
The first conductor of one turn to which voltage is applied is called the input or primary winding whereas the other winding (here a conductor of two turns) is called secondary or output winding. The load is connected directly to this winding. The magnetic effect can be improved by putting soft iron between the windings. Thus a transformer consists essentially of an iron core upon which are wound two sets of coils termed as primary and secondary respectively. The primary winding is that to which supply voltage is applied and secondary winding is that to which load is directly connected.
TRANSFORMERS EQUATION FOR INDUCED E.M.FS
When an alternating e.m.f. is applied to the terminals of the primary winding of a transformer an alternating magnetic flux is established in the core which induces an e.m.f. in both primary and secondary windings. Induced voltages in primary and secondary windings are directly proportional to number of turns of windings.
The formula connecting induced voltage, flux and number of turns is as follow:E=4Kf.m Nf------1 When E = r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in winding considered. Kf = form factor of e.m.f. wave (1.11 for sine wave) F.F = Vr.m.s Vd.c F = Frequency of the supply in hertz. m = Total magnetic flux through the core in webbers. N = No. of turns in the winding considered.
This formula holds good for the voltage induced in either primary of secondary windings. For a sin wave of voltage. E = 4(1.11) m Nf = 4.44 m Nf
RELATION OF TURN RATIO WITH VOLTAGE & CURRENT RATIOS
Induced voltage in primary winding, E1 = 4 Kf mfN1------------(2 Induced voltage in secondary winding E2 = 4 Kf mfN2-------------(3 Dividing Eq 2 by Eq 3 we have E1 = N1 E2 N2 Or V1 = N1 ---------(4 V2 N2 As the power (V&I) remains approximately same on both sides of a transformer. V1I1 = V2I2 V1 = V2 I2 I1 ---------(6 --------(5
Combining Eqs. 4 & 5 V1 = I2 N1 V2 I1 N2
ANALOGY BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Transformer has two active parts an iron core and windings. In core magnetic flux circulates which links both primary & secondary windings, causing induced voltage in these windings. Following analogy holds between magnetic & electric circuits. Electric circuit Electromotive force EMF Current, I Impedance, Z
Magnetic circuit Magneto motive force MMF=N Flux, Reluctance R.
CONSTRUCTION OF POWER TRANSFORMER
Active parts of a Transformer a). Core b). Winding CORE is made of low carbon, grain oriented cold rolled silicon steel. Thin laminations of enamel coated Si-steel are binded to form the core. The ferromagnetic metal of core provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux. WINDING Winding are mounted on core. Alternating power supply is connected with primary winding and power is transferred to secondary winding to which a load is connected.
(ii) CONSERVATOR TANK
In addition to main tank. A small tank above the main tank is called conservator tank. It is an oil reservoir which maintains the oil in main tank at full level. When oil expands, due to heat, in main tank it travels upward to conservator tank and when it contracts oil flows from conservator to main tank.
(iii) BREATHER
As we know moisture weakens the dielectric strength of oil breather is filled with silicon gel or other moisture absorbing compounds. The transformer exhales and in hales through the breather when oil expands or contracts in main tank. Breather absorbs moisture and prevents it to enter into transformer and mix with oil.
(iv) THERMOMETER
Two no. temperature gauges are installed on transformer showing the oil and winding temperature. Temperatures of Power Transformer are recorded on log sheet half hourly and those must not increase beyond the maximum limits.
(v) POSITION FOR BUCHOLZ RELAY
(.
Bucholz relay is connected in between the main tank and conservator tank. It detects the incipient fault inside the transformer. It is a very important protection of transformer which saves it from internal faults.
(vi) H.V, L.V BUSHINGS AND ARC GAP
External terminals of transformer are connected to the windings inside the transformer H.V & L.V bushings provide insulation between terminals and top plate transformer body. Arc Gaps or Arcing horns protect transformer from high voltage surges. The gap between the forks of an Arc gap is adjustable. It is kept about 1CM/KV. It may vary depending upon atmospheric conditions e.g. humidity & pollution in air.
(vii)
TOP PLATE AND GASKETS
In main tank which is filled with transformer oil (Insulating Oil) core and winding is immersed, top plate and gaskets seal the main tank.
(viii)
COOLING FANS/TUBES
Capacity/KVA rating of transformer depends strongly in working and atmospheric temperatures. By reducing temperature we can enhance the capacity of a transformer. Cooling Fins and Tubes increase the area exposed to air and hence increase the temperature transfer rate from transformer to atmosphere.
(ix)
FANS & PUMPS
Forced cooling is provided by fans and pumps. By fanning air incident on transformers/tubes temperature of transformer is lowered. Pumps do the forceful speedy circulation of oil enhancing the cooling rate.
LOADING OF TRANSFORMERS
This parts of lesson will serve as a guide to the range of permissible loading of transformers. No hard and fast rule can be evolved in this respect due to varied conditions of use and design criteria. It is hoped that the lesson would be useful to determine the extent of over-load that a transformer can safely take.
1.INTRODUCTION.
The life of a transformer depends on the life of its insulation which in turn depends on the temperature developed inside it. Increase in temperature results in deterioration of insulation. Relation between reduction in life expectancy of a transformer and the temperature is as per Appendix-A.
The extent of over-load that a transformer can take depends upon various factors viz. The winding or oil temperatures, surrounding air temperature. Duration of the over load in 24 hours, and general loading conditions during the remaining day. Classification of transformers on the basis of cooling methods and commonly used abbreviations as per standard practices are as shown in
GUIDE LINES FOR LOADING.
These depend upon the extent of facilities afforded by the equipment to read off temperatures at various relevant points. These may be as follows:i). Transformers with facilities to indicate winding temperatures. ii). Transformers with facilities to indicate only oil temperatures. Depending upon the situation as classified above, the method for assessing loading schedule varies and is detailed subsequently under the above heads.
WINDING TEMPERATURE BASIS
When temperature indicators for determining the winding temperature under operation conditions are available, the load should be controlled to limit the winding temperature to safe values. Steady Temperature Condition. When the temperature is maintained continuously, the following limits should not be exceeded. For an indicator Marked in Terms of Winding Temperature Limits
Hot spot temperature(temperature of the hottest spot) Embedded detector temperature. .. .. Average copper temperature (by resistance) .. ..
Recurrent Short Time Overload Condition
95oC 90oC
85oC
A recurrent short time overload is one of limited duration that is imposed in accordance with a known schedule. It is regarded as occasional and not occurring oftener than approximately once every 24 hours.
The following limits should not be exceeded for an Indicator
Marked in terms of time in any 24-hoursPeriod 2hrs. 8 hrs.
Hot spot temperature Embedded detector temperature Average copper temperature (by Resistance). 110oC 105oC 100oC 105oC 100oC 95oC 24 hrs. 95oC 90oC 85oC
Emergency Short time Overload Condition.
An emergency short time overload is an unexpected overload of limited duration. e.g. a transfer of load of another transformer for a day or so, and is to be regarded as an infrequent occurrence. The following temperatures may be permitted for such overloads:
For an Indicator Marked in terms of Time 2hrs. 8hrs. 24 hrs.
Hot spot temperature
115oC
110oC 105oC 100oC
105oC 100oC 95oC
Embedded detector temperature 110oC Average copper temperature by) 105oC Resistance).
OIL TEMPERATURE BASIS
a. On account of large differences between the winding and oil temperatures of various designs under full load conditions and the time lag of temperatures between windings and oil under varying load conditions, it is not safe to use oil temperature alone as an accurate guide in loading transformers. When it is necessary to use the oil temperature as an accurate guide, it should be used only in combination with a curve or tabulation (usually furnished by the manufacturer) giving permissible oil temperatures for various loads for that particular transformer.
The values of top oil temperature versus loads given in the curves referred above are rather conservative, being based; (1) upon a difference of 25 degrees (centigrade) between winding hot spot and oil temperatures at 100 percent self cooled or water cooled rating (2) upon a difference of 30 degrees (centigrade) between winding hot spot and oil temperatures at 100 percent forced air cooled rating and (3) upon this difference varying as the load is raised to 1.6 x power rating. These values are safe for any transformer, but for any individual transformer it may be possible to operate at higher oil temperatures because (1) the difference between the winding hot spot and oil temperatures may be less than 25 degrees (Centigrade) and 30 degrees (Centigrade) respectively, and (2) the top oil rise may be greater than 40 degrees for both self cooled and water cooled and 35 degrees for forced air cooled at 100 percent rating as against 50 degrees oil rise permitted by the American standard Association.
The values given in the tabulation below may be used as a rough guide for loading transformers:
(a)Temperature Maintained Continuously
Permissible Load Percent
Top Oil Temperature Limits Degrees Centigrade
Self-cooled Or Water cooled 100 112 123 Forced Air-cooled 100 110 120 70 65 60 Self cooled
Forced air cooled Or Water cooled 65 60 55
134
144
129
138
55
50
50
45
(b)Recurrent Short Time Overloads
Permissible Load Percent Top Oil Temperature Limits Degrees
Centigrade Self-cooled Forced Forced air cooled
Or
Water cooled
Air-cooled
Self cooled
Or
Water cooled
2 hrs. 8hrs. 24hrs. 2hrs. 8hrs.
24 hrs.
100
100
85
80
70
80
75
65
112
123 134
110
120 129
80
75 70
75
70 65
65
60 55
75
70 65
70
65 60
60
55 50
144
138
65
60
50
60
55
45
(c) Emergency Short Time Overload
Permissible Load Percent
Self-cooled Forced
Top Oil Temperature Limits Degrees Centigrade
Forced air cooled
Or
Water cooled
Air-cooled
Self cooled
Or
Water cooled
2 hrs. 8hrs. 24hrs. 2hrs. 8hrs.
24 hrs.
100 112 123 134 144
100 110 120 129 138
90 85 80 75 70
85 80 75 70 65
80 75 70 65 60
85 80 75 70 65
80 75 70 65 60
75 70 65 60 55
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS ON THE BASIS OF COOLING METHOD AND COMMONLY USED ABREVIATIONS
Serial No. 1. 2.
Type
Oil immersed self cooled Oil immersed self-cooled, forced, aircooled
A.S.A
OA OA/FA
B.S
ON ON/OB
V.D.E
S S/F
I.E.C
ON/AN ON/AN ON/AF
3.
Oil immersed self-cooled, forced, aircooled
OA/FOA
ON/OFB
S/FU
OF/ON OF/AF
4.
Oil immersed forced oil, forced, aircooled
FOA
OFB
FU
OF/AF
5. 6.
Oil immersed water-cooled Oil immersed forced oil, cooled forced
OW FOW
OW OFW
WU
OW/WN OF/WF
water-cooled
7. Dry-type, self-cooled AA AN S AB
8.
9. 10.
Dry-type forced air cooled
Dry-type self-cooled forced air-cooled Oil immersed air-cooled, forced oil
AFA
AA/FA -
AB
AN/AB OFN
F
S/F SU
AN/AF
AB/AD OF/AN
EFFECTS OF OVERLOADING
Overloading As the load on a transformer is increased i.e. secondary current as well as primary current increase resulting an increase in Power Losses in windings which are also called as Cu losses and equal to I2R. As the Cu-losses are directly proportional to square of current i.e. that if current is increased twice the Culosses are increased by 4 times as of the previous. The overloading increases power and losses inside a transformer and hence the temperature of power transformer is increased. also affects the physical life time span of transformer.
EFFECTS OF OVERLOADING
Temperature rise also decides KVA of transformer by lowering working temperature by of a transformer its KVA/MVA capacity can be enhanced. By employing forced cooling i.e. fanning and pumping etc. The transformers capacity can be increased. e.g. Cooling Mode ONAN ONAF OFAF Capacity of 1-phase, Auto Transformer 500KV/220KV at Gatti Grid Station 90MVA (oil immersed natural cooling) 120MVA (oil immersed forced air) 150MVA (oil forced air forced)
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
There are two types of losses inside the Transformer:a). Cu-Losses. b). Core Losses. Cu-LOSSES Power losses inside the windings of a transformer are called Culosses and equal to I2R. These losses depends upon load and are proportional to square of the load current. CORE LOSSES Power losses in core and called Iron losses or core losses. These are independent of load. There are further divided into: Eddy current losses Hysteretic losses
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
EDDY CURRENT LOSSES Eddy current losses are resulted due to current flowing in the core due to induced e.m.f. in the core produced by the magnetic flux in the core. HYSTERISIS LOSSES Power losses in the core due to the reversal of alternating flux in the core. Core losses are independent of the load of transformer.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER
DEFINITION
Parallel operation of transformers involves two or more transformers connected to carry a common load when a given transformer is insufficient in capacity to deliver a particular load, it may either be taken out of circuit and replaced with a larger unit or an additional unit may be added to the circuit by connecting its primary side to the same source of supply and its secondary side to the same load circuit. The second unit is then operating in parallel with the first unit.
ADVANTAGES OF PARALLEL OPERATION
a) Enhanced power capacity of Grid Station.
b) Load sharing between transformers. c) Increased reliability of system operation.
d) Convenience in maintenance.
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION
There are certain definite conditions which must be fulfilled in order to avoid any local circulating currents and to ensure that the transformers share the common load in proportion to their KVA rating. The conditions are:The same polarity. The same phase sequence. The same inherent phase angle difference between primary and secondary terminals. The same voltage ratio with almost same characteristic of tap changer.
The same percentage impedance.
KVA rating should not exceed three to one.
POLARITY, PHASE SEQUENCE AND VECTOR GROUP
Any two single phase transformers have the same polarity when their instantaneous terminal voltages are in phase. With this condition a voltmeter connected across similar terminals will indicate zero. In paralleling three phase transformers of the same voltage ratio, polarity may be neglected. For satisfactory paralleling conditions the angular displacement and phase rotation between the two units to be paralleled must be the same. For example, a Y-Y connected transformer having an angular displacement of 0 degrees cannot be connected in parallel with a Y- connected transformer having an angular displacement of 30 degree. The secondary voltages of these two connections would be 30o out of phase with each other. If connected in parallel, voltage will exist within the parallel connection and thereby resulting in circulating current between two transformers.
POLARITY, PHASE SEQUENCE AND VECTOR GROUP
Similarly, if the phase rotation of the secondaries of the two three phase transformers are in opposite directions it is apparent that a voltage exists within the parallel connection, which tends to send current through each of the two transformers. All transformers of any one vector group may be connected in parallel with each other. A transformer of one group, however cannot be connected in parallel with a transformer of another group because of the difference in angular displacement.
SAME VOLTAGE RATIO
It the voltage ratio of two transformers connected in parallel is not the same, the difference in voltage between the two windings will cause a current to flow within the parallel circuit at all times. The amount of circulating current can be determined from the following formula: Percent Ic = (100 X % E) %Z1 + % Z2 Where percent Ic = circulating current in percent of the normal load current of one transformer. Percent E= difference in voltage between the two windings expressed as a percent of the normal voltage. Percent Z1 = the percent impedance of unit No.1 Percent Z2 = the percent impedance of unit No.2
SAME VOLTAGE RATIO
In the formula given above it is assumed that the capacity of both units is the same. If the capacities are different, the percent impedances in the formula should be based upon the same KVA rating, and the percent circulating current is then a percent of the normal load current at the same KVA rating. It is evident that only a small difference in transformers connected in parallel will relatively large circulating current. For parallel operation the circulating current exceed 10% of the normal load current. the ratio of produce a satisfactory should not
PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE
The division of external load between transformers connected in parallel is inversely proportional to their ohmic impedance, so percentage impedance voltages should not differ more than 10% in parallel operating transformer. The load distribution is parallel operation on common bus bar can be determined. Approximately by the following formula:Load on KVA1= Total load in KVAxKVA1/KVA1+ (rated)KVA2xZ average/Z1
RATIO BETWEEN KVA RATING
Ratio of rated power should not be greater than 3:1 in transformers to be connected in parallel.
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