VHF Omnidirectional Range
(VOR)
Ground station oriented to magnetic
north, transmitting directional information
to aircraft
Benefits
More accurate, precise flying
Reliable
Not susceptible to interference
Voice Capable
Errors/Negatives
Costly to maintain
Line-of-sight
VOR
Omnidirectional
reference signal
Directional signal from
antenna rotating @
1800 rpm
Receiver uses phase
discrimination
Navigation in polar
Distance Measuring
coordinates (rho-theta)
Equipment (DME) & often
Tacan are colocated with
VOR
VOR Capabilities
VHF 108.0-117.95mhz
Line of sight
1 LOP at a time
2 receivers give 2 LOPs (fix)
VOR + DME = LOP & Arc (fix)
Not sensitive to aircraft heading
Fly to or from a VOR or intercept a radial
Radial courses oriented FROM the station
VOR Types
High
1,000 14,500; 40NM
14,500 18,000; 100NM
18,000 45,000; 130NM
45,000 60,000; 100NM
Low
1,000 18,000; 40NM
Terminal
1,000 12,000; 25NM
* All altitudes AGL
VOR Types
The Principle of the VOR
360
Magnetic
North
045
315
135
270
090
135
225
180
VOR receiver gives 1 LOP called a Radial
Parts of a VOR system
Receiver
Course
Deviation
Indicator
(CDI)
To/From ind.
Omni
bearing
selector
VHF Omnirange
VHF Omnirange
VHF Omnirange
Flying the VOR
Initial Tracking
Tune, Identify, Twist
Turn OBS to center needle and figure
out position (use FROM)
Note heading on top of card
If flying FROM station (radial), then turn to
that heading
If flying TO station, put reciprocal heading
on top and center, then turn to that heading
Flying the VOR
Wind Correction
Further away, more correction is
needed to get back on track
At 60NM from station, 1 = 1NM
Generally, when within 20NM, 20-30 in
direction of needle works
Once needle centers, turn back towards
original heading, but add wind
correction of 5
Flying the VOR
Station Passage
CDI will become very sensitive, and
then begin to oscillate
Flag will switch from TO/OFF/FROM
Switching Radials
During station passage, turn OBS to
new course to fly
Flying the VOR
Intercepting
If needle is alive, then turn towards it as if you
were tracking it
If full deflection, first center needle to find what
radial you are on
Twist OBS back to desired course
Parallel that course
Turn 30-60 in direction of needle, depending
on distance from station
Once needle is alive, turn back in direction of
desired course
Follow tracking procedures
Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME)
Radio signal sent out from aircraft to ground
station. Ground station interprets this signal and
sends back. Equipment in aircraft measures time
and converts to nautical miles.
Errors
Diagonal (slant-line) distance from station to aircraft
not lateral
Becomes greater the closer you get to the station
Greatest when directly over station at high altitudes
Limited number of queries
Uses
Intersections/Fixes
IAP
Groundspeed
Types of Navigation Systems
Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Area Navigation (RNAV)
Generic name for a system that
permits point-to-point flight
Onboard computer that computes a
position, track, and groundspeed
VOR/DME
Loran
GPS
Inertial
LOng RAnge Navigation
(LORAN)
Collection of antennas throughout
the United States transmit signals
Aircraft receiver calculates position
based on intersection of multiple
signals
Global Positioning System
(GPS)
GPS = Global Positioning System
A space based, all-weather, jam
resistant, continuous operation,
worldwide radio navigation system.
Provides extremely accurate 3D
location data as well as velocity and
time.
GPS
System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in
view at all times
Receiver uses 4 of these to determine
position of aircraft
Each satellite transmits code, which
contains satellite position and GPS time
Receiver, knowing how fast signal was
sent and at what time, calculates position
GPS Glossary
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring
Determines if satellites are providing correct data
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
Collection of ground receivers take satellite data and
correct it for atmospheric conditions
Works based on known position of ground stations
LAAS Local Area Augmentation System
Same as WAAS, but on a smaller, more precise scale
For terminal area around airport
LOP 1 Sphere
Single
range can
lie anywhere
on a sphere
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems
R1
LOP 2 Spheres
Two ranges
will intersect
on a line,
defined by the
intersection of
two spheres
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems
LOP 3 Spheres
Three spheres
intersect at a
point
Three ranges
needed to
resolve
lat/long/altitude
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems
GPS Uses
Civilian Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Surveying
Search and Rescue
Collision avoidance
Agriculture
Military Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Rendezvous
Close Air Support
Mine Warfare
Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs)
Inertial Navigation System
Dead-Reckoning
Self-contained source of:
Position, groundspeed, & heading
Does not even need a receiver
Cannot be jammed
Gets better with use
Applies a calibration correction
after each flight
Primitive Accelerometer
M
No Acceleration
0
Acceleration
M
0
Acceleration from the right
F = kx = ma
a = kx/m
Inertial Navigation Principles
s(t ) a (t )dt
Acceleration is vectorially summed in x, y, & z.
Output is compensated movement of the platform
& for curvature & rotation of the earth.
Inertial Navigation Systems
Early systems required precise
mechanical parts
Bigger is more accurate
Modern systems can be:
Mechanical (platform)
Simple gyros
Accurate
Electronic (strapdown)
Few moving parts
Smaller
Cheaper
Inertial Navigation Systems
Aircraft systems use
Pendulum accelerometers or MEMS
Micro-electromechanical sensors
Ring laser gyros
To measure angular change
INS complements GPS
Mechanical
Ring Laser Gyro
Types of Navigation Systems
Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Celestial Navigation
Advantages
No power required
Self contained
Cannot be jammed
Available everywhere
Disadvantages
Dusk & dawn only
Clear weather only
Slow for aircraft
Needs the art of nav.
Navigators skill
Requires computation
At least data entry
Circle of Equal
Altitude
DeRemer & McLean Global Navigation
Types of Errors
Error increases with distance
VOR/DME, ADF
Error increases with time
DR, Inertial
Reliability Concerns
GPS, Loran, Celestial
Human error
Which Types of Navigation are
Important to a Student Pilot?
1. Pilotage
2. Dead Reckoning
3. Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
4. Celestial
5. Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
If Something Seems Wrong,
it Probably is!
Be suspicious.
Check and recheck.
If you cannot tell your passengers
your ETA at the destination, you are
not navigating.
What can you do if youre lost?
Assume youre near your DR position
Do not assume a huge wind just came up
Use your VOR/DME or 2 VORs
Look on the chart for landmarks
Especially those that are shown small
If you miss a checkpoint, hold your
heading & look for the next one
Do not guess where you are! If all else
fails, CALL ATC (after all, YOU are
paying for it)
