TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING II
Pavement Failures, Construction
And Maintenance

Flexible Pavement Distress

Summary of the major flexible
pavement distresses is explained
below. Each distress discussion
includes (1) pictures (2) a description
of the distress, (3) why the distress is
a problem and (4) typical causes of
the distress.5)solution to the
problem

Failure Types

Fatigue (alligator) cracking

Bleeding
Block cracking
Corrugation and shoving
Depression
Joint reflection cracking
Lane/shoulder drop-off
Longitudinal cracking
Patching Polished aggregate
Potholes

Raveling
Rutting
Slippage cracking
Stripping
Transverse (thermal) cracking
Water bleeding and pumping

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

Description: Series of interconnected
cracks caused by fatigue failure of the
HMA surface (or stabilized base) under
repeated traffic loading. In thin
pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom
of the HMA layer where the tensile stress
is the highest then propagates to the
surface as one or more longitudinal
cracks. This is commonly referred to as
"bottom-up" or "classical" fatigue cracking.

 In thick pavements, the cracks most

likely initiate from the top .After
repeated loading, the longitudinal
cracks connect forming many-sided
sharp-angled pieces that develop into
a pattern resembling the back of an
alligator or crocodile.

 Problem: Indicator of structural

failure, cracks allow moisture
infiltration, roughness, may further
deteriorate to a pothole
Possible Causes: Inadequate
structural support. A few of the more
common ones are listed here:

 Decrease in pavement load supporting

characteristics
Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support
(e.g., poor drainage or spring thaw resulting in
a less stiff base).
Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the
stripped portion contributes little to pavement
strength so the effective HMA thickness
decreases)

Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier

loads than anticipated in design)
Inadequate structural design
Poor construction (e.g., inadequate
compaction)

 Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should

be investigated to determine the root cause
of failure. Any investigation should involve
digging a pit or coring the pavement to
determine the pavement's structural
makeup as well as determining whether or
not subsurface moisture is a contributing
factor. Once the characteristic alligator
pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing
is generally ineffective. Fatigue crack
repair generally falls into one of two
categories:

 Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss

of subgrade support. Remove the cracked
pavement area then dig out and replace the area of
poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that
area if necessary. Patch over the repaired
subgrade.
Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general
structural failure. Place an HMA overlay over the
entire pavement surface. This overlay must be
strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading because the underlying fatigue cracked
pavement most likely contributes little or no strength
(Roberts et. al., 1996).

Bad fatigue cracking

Fatigue cracking from frost

action

Fatigue cracking from edge

failure

Bleeding
Description: A film of asphalt binder on the
pavement surface. It usually creates a
shiny, glass-like reflecting surface (as in the
third photo) that can become quite sticky.
Problem: Loss of skid resistance when wet
Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when
asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids
during hot weather and then expands onto
the pavement surface. Since bleeding is
not reversible during cold weather, asphalt
binder will accumulate on the pavement
surface over time .

 This can be caused by one or a

combination of the following:
Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA
(either due to mix design or
manufacturing)
Low HMA air void content (e.g., not
enough room for the asphalt to
expand into during hot weather)

 Repair: The following repair measures may

eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder film on
the pavement's surface but may not correct the
underlying problem that caused the bleeding:
Minor bleeding can often be corrected by
applying coarse sand to blot up the excess
asphalt binder.
Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off
excess asphalt with a motor grader or
removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting
surface is excessively rough, resurfacing may
be necessary (APAI, no date given).

Bleeding in Wheel Paths

Bleeding in wheelpaths

HMA bleeding from overasphalting

3) Block Cracking

 Description: Interconnected cracks

that divide the pavement up into
rectangular pieces. Blocks range in
size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1 ft2)
to 9 m2 (100 ft2). Larger blocks are
generally classified as longitudinal and
transverse cracking. Block cracking
normally occurs over a large portion of
pavement area but sometimes will
occur only in non-traffic areas.

 Problem: Allows moisture infiltration,

roughness
Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily
temperature cycling. Typically caused by an
inability of asphalt binder to expand and
contract with temperature cycles because
of:
Asphalt binder aging
Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix
design

 Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity

and extent of the block cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack
seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the
sub-grade through the cracks and (2) further
raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide
years of satisfactory service after developing
small cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts
et. al., 1996).
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
cracks with raveled edges). Remove and
replace the cracked pavement layer with an
overlay.

4) Corrugation and Shoving

Description: A form of plastic movement
typified by ripples (corrugation) or an
abrupt wave (shoving) across the
pavement surface. The distortion is
perpendicular to the traffic direction.
Usually occurs at points where traffic starts
and stops (corrugation) or areas where
HMA abuts a rigid object (shoving).
Problem: Roughness

 Possible Causes: Usually caused by

traffic action (starting and stopping)
combined with:
An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA
layer (caused by mix contamination,
poor mix design, poor HMA
manufacturing, or lack of aeration of
liquid asphalt emulsions)
Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved

pavement should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure. Repair
strategies generally fall into one of two
categories:
Small, localized areas of corrugation or
shoving. Remove the distorted pavement
and patch.
Large corrugated or shoved areas
indicative of general HMA failure. Remove
the damaged pavement and overlay.

5) Depression

 Description: Localized pavement surface

areas with slightly lower elevations than the
surrounding pavement. Depressions are
very noticeable after a rain when they fill
with water.
Problem: Roughness, depressions filled
with substantial water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning
Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate
compaction during construction.

 Repair: By definition, depressions are

small localized areas. A pavement
depression should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure (i.e.,
subgrade settlement or frost heave).
Depressions should be repaired by
removing the affected pavement then
digging out and replacing the area of poor
subgrade. Patch over the repaired
subgrade.

6) Joint Reflection Cracking

Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay
of a rigid pavement. The cracks occur
directly over the underlying rigid pavement
joints. Joint reflection cracking does not
include reflection cracks that occur away
from an underlying joint or from any other
type of base (e.g., cement or lime
stabilized).
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration,
roughness

 Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab

beneath the HMA surface because of thermal and
moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
however loading can hasten deterioration.
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and
extent of the cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent
cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture
into the sub-grade through the cracks and (2)
further raveling of the crack edges. In general,
rigid pavement joints will eventually reflect through
an HMA overlay without proper surface
preparation.
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Joint reflection cracking on an

arterial

Joint reflection cracking closeup

7) Longitudinal Cracking
Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's
centerline or lay down direction. Usually a type of
fatigue cracking.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness,
indicates possible onset of alligator cracking and
structural failure.
Possible Causes:
Poor joint construction or location. Joints are
generally the least dense areas of a pavement.
Therefore, they should be constructed outside of
the wheel path so that they are only infrequently
loaded. Joints in the wheel path like those shown
in third through fifth figures above, will general fail
prematurely.

 A reflective crack from an underlying

layer (not including joint reflection
cracking)
HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of
future alligator cracking)
top-down cracking
Repair: Strategies depend upon the
severity and extent of the cracking:

 Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and

infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent
(1) entry of moisture into the sub-grade
through the cracks and (2) further raveling
of the crack edges. HMA can provide years
of satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et.
al., 1996).
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace
the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Longitudinal cracking as the

onset of fatigue cracking

Longitudinal cracking from poor

joint construction

Longitudinal cracking from poor

joint construction

8) Patching

 Description: An area of pavement that has been

replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement. A patch is considered a defect no
matter how well it performs.
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes:
Previous localized pavement deterioration that has
been removed and patched
Utility cuts
Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action.
The only way they can be removed from a
pavement's surface is by either a structural or nonstructural overlay.

9) Polished Aggregate
Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the
portion of aggregate extending above the asphalt
binder is either very small or there are no rough or
angular aggregate particles.
Problem: Decreased skid resistance
Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications.
Generally, as a pavement ages the protruding
rough, angular particles become polished. This
can occur quicker if the aggregate is susceptible
to abrasion or subject to excessive studded tire
wear.
Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal .

SMAs at the NCAT test track

5 years of wear

10) Potholes
Description: Small, bowl-shaped
depressions in the pavement surface that
penetrate all the way through the HMA layer
down to the base course. They generally
have sharp edges and vertical sides near
the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely
to occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces
(25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 inches)) and seldom
occur on roads with 100 mm (4 inch) or
deeper HMA surfaces (Roberts et al., 1996).

 Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular

damage can result from driving across
potholes at higher speeds), moisture
infiltration
Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are
the end result of alligator cracking. As
alligator cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks
of pavement, which can be dislodged as
vehicles drive over them. The remaining
hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged
is called a pothole.
Repair: In accordance with patching
techniques.

Pothole from fatigue

cracking

Developing pothole

11) Raveling
Description: The progressive
disintegration of an HMA layer from the
surface downward as a result of the
dislodgement of aggregate particles.
Problem: Loose debris on the
pavement, roughness, water collecting
in the raveled locations resulting in
vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid
resistance

 Possible Causes: Several including:

Loss of bond between aggregate particles
and the asphalt binder as a result of:
A dust coating on the aggregate particles that
forces the asphalt binder to bond with the dust
rather than the aggregate
Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are
missing from the aggregate matrix, then the
asphalt binder is only able to bind the
remaining coarse particles at their relatively few
contact points.

 Inadequate compaction during

construction. High density is
required to develop sufficient
cohesion within the HMA. The third
figure above shows a road suffering
from raveling due to inadequate
compaction caused by cold weather
paving.

 Mechanical dislodging by certain

types of traffic (studded tires,
snowplow blades or tracked
vehicles). The first and fourth figures
above show raveling most likely
caused by snow plows.

 Repair: A raveled pavement should be

investigated to determine the root cause of
failure. Repair strategies generally fall into
one of two categories:
Small, localized areas of raveling.
Remove the raveled pavement and patch.
Large raveled areas indicative of general
HMA failure. Remove the damaged
pavement and overlay.

Raveling due to low density

Raveling from snowplot

operations

From segregation

12) RUTTING
Description: Surface depression in the
wheelpath. Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur
along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly
evident after a rain when they are filled with
water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix
rutting and subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs
when the subgrade does not rut yet the pavement
surface exhibits wheelpath depressions as a result
of compaction/mix design problems. Subgrade
rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits
wheelpath depressions due to loading. In this
case, the pavement settles into the subgrade ruts
causing surface depressions in the wheelpath.

 Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle

hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts tend
to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is
steered across the rut.
Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any
of a pavement's layers or subgrade usually caused
by consolidation or lateral movement of the
materials due to traffic loading. Specific causes of
rutting can be:
Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during
construction. If it is not compacted enough initially,
HMA pavement may continue to densify under
traffic loads.

 Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of

inadequate pavement structure)
Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g.,
excessively high asphalt content, excessive
mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular
aggregate particles)
Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the
same problem as the ruts described here, but
they are actually a result of mechanical
dislodging due to wear and not pavement
deformation.

 Repair: A heavily rutted pavement

should be investigated to determine
the root cause of failure (e.g.
insufficient compaction, subgrade
rutting, poor mix design or studded
tire wear). Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch
deep) can generally be left
untreated. Pavement with deeper
ruts should be leveled and overlaid

Mix rutting

Mix rutting

Rutting from mix instability

13) Slippage Cracking

(FIG: Slippage cracking at a bus stop )

 Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks

generally having two ends pointed into the direction
of traffic.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause
the pavement surface to slide and deform. The
resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a
low-strength surface mix or poor bonding between
the surface HMA layer and the next underlying layer
in the pavement structure.
Repair: Removal and replacement of affected area.

14) Stripping
Description: The loss of bond between
aggregates and asphalt binder that
typically begins at the bottom of the HMA
layer and progresses upward. When
stripping begins at the surface and
progresses downward it is usually called
raveling. The third photo show the surface
effects of underlying stripping.
Problem: Decreased structural support,
rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or
cracking (alligator and longitudinal)

 Possible Causes: Bottom-up

stripping is very difficult to recognize
because it manifests itself on the
pavement surface as other forms of
distress including rutting,
shoving/corrugations, raveling, or
cracking. Typically, a core must be
taken to positively identify stripping as
a pavement distress.
Poor aggregate surface chemistry

 Water in the HMA causing moisture damage

Overlays over an existing open-graded
surface course. Based on WSDOT
experience, these overlays will tend to strip.
Repair: A stripped pavement should be
investigated to determine the root cause of
failure (i.e., how did the moisture get in?).
Generally, the stripped pavement needs to
be removed and replaced after correction of
any subsurface drainage issues.

Core hole showing stripping at

the bottom

Stripping at bottom of hole

Fatigue failure from stripping

15) Transverse (Thermal)

Cracking
Description: Cracks perpendicular to the
pavement's centerline or laydown direction.
Usually a type of thermal cracking.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration,
roughness
Possible Causes: Several including:
Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low
temperatures or asphalt binder hardening
Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath
the surface HMA layer
top-down cracking

 Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity

and extent of the cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through
the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al.,
1996).
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay

Large patched thermal crack