2.
11 ASSESSMENT OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.11.1 Planning
2.11.2 Test methods
Physical Tests
Durability Tests
Some of the reasons for carrying
out assessments
To determine the nature of repairs. In this instance there
are always visible signs of deterioration, e.g. cracking.
To decide the value of a building when it is being sold
or insured.
To determine the expected remaining useful life of a
building when refurbishment or change of use is being
considered.
To determine the ability of the structure to take an
increased loading.
Routine safety inspection (e.g. road bridges).
Typical
repairs
Temporary lifting for repair
Some of the reasons for carrying
out assessments
To determine the nature of repairs. In this instance there
are always visible signs of deterioration, e.g. cracking.
To decide the value of a building when it is being sold
or insured.
To determine the expected remaining useful life of a
building when refurbishment or change of use is being
considered.
To determine the ability of the structure to take an
increased loading.
Routine safety inspection (e.g. road bridges).
Skyline Plaza
Apartments
March 2, 1973
Probable Cause of Failure
Premature removal of formwork
Concrete 4 days old
Average ambient temperature 7 C
The were no specification requirements
for in-place concrete strength for safe
removal of formwork.
Willow Island, West
Virginia Cooling Tower
Tower 1 completed
in August 1977
Lift 28
Construction of
Tower 2 halted in
Fall of 1977
1.5-m lifts
State of Construction
at Time of Failure
Lift 28 cast previous
day
Concrete bucket going
up
Cracking sound
Gantry #4 tilts inward
GANTRY 4
April 26
51 Fatalities
Conclusions from the
two accidents
Failure was a result of inadequate concrete
strength to support applied construction
loads
Failure could have been prevented had inplace tests been used to assess strength of
previous lift
Some of the reasons for carrying
out assessments
To determine the nature of repairs. In this instance there
are always visible signs of deterioration, e.g. cracking.
To decide the value of a building when it is being sold
or insured.
To determine the expected remaining useful life of a
building when refurbishment or change of use is being
considered.
To determine the ability of the structure to take an
increased loading.
Routine safety inspection (e.g. road bridges).
Planning the investigation
Do not be over ambitious, a few tests clearly analysed
and reported on time are far more use than a mass of
data.
Ensure that adequate control areas are used. Almost all of
the tests are comparative so there must be some results
from sound areas to compare with the suspect areas.
Where possible carry out the tests on a accurately
measured grid.
Try to decide on a method of analysis and presentation
before work starts.
Plan your
access
Planning the investigation
Do not be over ambitious, a few tests clearly analysed
and reported on time are far more use than a mass of
data.
Ensure that adequate control areas are used. Almost all of
the tests are comparative so there must be some results
from sound areas to compare with the suspect areas.
Where possible carry out the tests on a accurately
measured grid.
Try to decide on a method of analysis and presentation
before work starts.
2.11 ASSESSMENT OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.11.1 Planning
2.11.2 Test methods
Physical Tests
Durability Tests
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Measurement
of crack width
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Ultrasonic
Testing
Portable
Ultrasonic
Non-Destructive
Digital
Indicating
Tester
Pressure waves in a solid
(see section 1.4)
(1 + )(1 - 2)
E=v d
(1 - )
E = Young's modulus
v = pulse velocity
d = density
= Poisson's ratio
Arrangement
Direct
T
Most
Reliable
Semi-Direct
Surface
T
Least
Reliable
Ultrasonic testing
Our Ultrasonic Test Machine
Indirect
measurements
(also use graph for
semi-direct)
Ultrasound at crack
Ultrasonic
Through
Transmission
Presence of "defects"
increases travel time
(lower speed)
Surface Method
Determine depth of interface, d
Requires faster wave speed in bottom layer
Measure travel time as a function of distance, X,
between transducers
X
Transmitter
d=?
Receiver
Path 1
Path 2
Damaged concrete
Vd
Sound concrete
Vs
Layer thickness measurement
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Cover
meters
Cover meters 2 different types
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Lock/release
button
Rod
Push down
Push Body
Body
Latch
Slider
Hammer
Spring
Rod
Operation
Hammer
Released
Rebound
Slider
Rebound number = 41
Near-surface Effects
Aggregate
Air void
Rough
Dry or
Carbonation
Digital rebound hammer
Charts for
our rebound
hammers
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Impact echo test
Impact
Receiver
Incident Ray
Reflected Ray
Incident
Front
Reflected
Front
Impact-Echo Method
Force
Displacement
Time
Time
Contact
time
Flaw
Field Testing System
Impact Echo Applications
Voids or honeycombing
Delaminations (at reinforcement,
asphalt/concrete interface, overlay, repair)
Depth of surface-opening cracks
Member thickness (ASTM C 1383)
Voids in grouted tendon ducts
Impact Echo
Limitations
Detection is difficult when:
Deep Defect
Overlay
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Coring Machines
Recovered Cores
Concrete
Semi-dry
paste/grout
Trailer mounted coring machine
Sawing concrete
CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be
ground or capped before testing. The quality of the
result is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.
Strengths obtained from core tests
CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be
ground or capped before testing. The quality of the
result is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.
Chop saw for cutting core ends
CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be
ground or capped before testing. The quality of the
result is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.
Flow of water in
core cutting
CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be ground
or capped before testing. The quality of the result
is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Pull-out test (1)
Pull out test (2)
Pull out tests
(3)
Pull-out tests (in
our lab)
Physical Tests
Measurement of crack width
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests
Structural load testing
Yield
Plastic
Failure
If this is the unloading
curve the structure has
been overloaded
Stress
Strain
2.11 ASSESSMENT OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.11.1 Planning
2.11.2 Test methods
Physical Tests
Durability Tests
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
ISAT apparatus
ISAT
Test
Capillary & Scale
Close valve at
specified intervals
from start of test
Measure rate of
absorption
Reservoir
Valve
Cap
Seal
80 mm
200 5mm
ISAT flow rates
Flow = A * Time-N
Flow
Time
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
Figg Air
Permeabilit
y
Test
Apply vacuum to
prescribed pressure
Close value and
measure time for
pressure to increase
to prescribed value
Pressure Gage
Vacuum
Plug
20 mm
20 mm
10 mm
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
Half-Cell Potential Method
ASTM C 876
-0.28
Connection to bar
Voltmeter
_
+
Cu-CuSO4 half
cell
Copper rod
CuSO4 solution
Sponge
Porous plug
Potential
survey
and
resistivity
ASTM C876 Classification for
corrosion detection
Measured potential (CSE)
more negative than -350mV
-200 to -350mV
Less negative than -200mV
Statistical
risk of corrosion
90%
50%
10%
Contours from
potential
survey
POTENTIAL MAPPING
Potential mapping is quick, non-destructive, and
cheap. Large areas may be covered.
The results must be treated with caution. For
example carbonation increases concrete resistivity
and therefore increases apparent rest potential.
The results only indicate that corrosion is possible
and give no information about corrosion rates.
Prestressing cables in ducts cannot be
tested
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
4-Probe Method by Wenner
A.C. source
2sV
=
I
Ammeter, I
Voltmeter, V
Probes
Equipotential lines
Current lines
Concrete resistivity measurement
Significance of concrete resistivity
to likelihood of corrosion
Resistivity Cm
Likelihood of significant
corrosion
very high
high
low/moderate
low
<5000
5000-10000
10000-20000
>20000
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
The ASTM Chloride Permeability
insitu test (measures electromigration)
Sodium
chloride
0 Volts
Chloride
ions
Reinforcing
bar
+60 volts
Current is
measured
The ASTM Chloride Permeability
test on a recovered core
0 Volts
Sodium
chloride
+60 volts
Chloride
ions
Sodium
hydroxide
Modified ASTM
Chloride Permeability
test
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
Phenolphthalein
Test
Durability Tests
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests
X-ray
apparatus
RADA
R
Electromagnetic equivalent of
SONAR
Antenna
V=
= dielectric constant
C = speed in air
9-mm and 35-mm Bars at Three Depths
300 mm spacing
50, 100, 150 mm cover
9 mm
50
100
35 mm
150
50
100
150
Infra-Red
Camera
Surveys
Cold Spot
Outward
Heat Flow
(cooling)
Hot Spot
Inward
Heat Flow
(heating)
IR Camera
Photo of bridge
deck
Expansion Joint
IR Image
