Retaining Walls

Function of retaining wall

Retaining walls are used to hold back masses of earth or other
loose material where conditions make it impossible to let those
masses assume their natural slopes.
Such conditions occur when the width of an excavation, cut,
or embankment is restricted by conditions of ownership, use
of the structure, or economy. For example, in railway or
highway construction the width of the right of way is fixed,
and the cut or embankment must be contained within that
width.
Similarly, the basement walls of the buildings must be located
within the property and must retain the soil surrounding the
base.

Types of retaining walls

Free standing retaining walls, as distinct from those that form
parts of structures, such as basement walls, are of various types.
The gravity retaining wall retains the
earth entirely by its own weight and
generally contains no reinforcement.
It is used up to 10 ft height.
The reinforced concrete cantilever
retaining wall consists of the vertical arm
that retains the earth and is held in
position by a footing or base slab. In this
case, the weight of the fill on top of the
heel, in addition to the weight of the wall,
contributes to the stability of the structure.
Since the arm represents a vertical
cantilever, its required thickness increase
rapidly, with increasing height. It is used in
3
the range of 10 to 20ft height.

Types of retaining walls

In the counterfort wall the
stem and base slab are tied
together by counterforts which
are transverse walls spaced
at intervals and act as tension
ties to support the stem wall.
Counterforts are of half or
larger heights. Counterfort
walls are economical for
heights over 25 ft.

Property rights or other restrictions sometimes make it necessary

to place the wall at the forward edge of the base slab, i.e. to omit
the toe. Whenever it is possible, toe extensions of one-third to
one-fourth of the width of the base provide a 4more economical
solution.

Types of retaining walls

A buttress wall is similar to a
counterfort wall except that
the transverse support walls
are located on the side of the
stem opposite to the retained
material
and
act
as
compression struts. Buttress,
as compression elements,
are more efficient than the
tension counterforts and are
economical in the same
height range.
A counterfort is more widely used than a buttress because the
counterfort is hidden beneath the retained material, whereas the
buttress occupies what may otherwise be usable space in front of
5
the wall.

Types of retaining walls

This is an free standing wall category. A wall type bridge abutment
acts similarly to a cantilever retaining wall except that the bridge
deck provides an additional horizontal restraint at the top of the
stem. Thus this abutment is designed as a beam fixed at the
bottom and simply supported or partially restrained at the top.

Earth Pressure

For liquid P=wwh, ww is the

unit weight of water.
Soil retaining structure Ph=Cowh
w is unit weight of the soil
C0 is a constant known as the coefficient of earth pressure at
rest According to Rankine, the coefficient for active and passive
earth pressure are

Cos
Ca Cos
Cos

Cos 2 Cos 2
Cos 2 Cos 2

Cos Cos 2 Cos 2

Cp Cos
Cos Cos 2 Cos 2
For the case of horizontal surface =0
1 sin
1 sin 7
Cah
Cph
1 sin
1 sin

Earth pressure for common condition of loading

h
y
3
1
P Cah wh 2
2

h
y
3
1
p Cawh 2
2
For Ca Cos
8

Earth pressure for common condition of loading

h2 3hh
y
3(h 2h)
1
P Cah wh(h 2h)
2

Stability Requirement
1. Individual parts should be strong enough to resist the applied
forces
2.
The
wall as
a whole
should
be
stable
against
(i)
Settlem
ent (ii)
Sliding
(iii)
Overtur
ning
10

Stability Requirement
Settlement
It is necessary to ensure that the pressure under the footing does
not exceed the permissible bearing pressure for the particular
soil.
By the formula

q max
min

N MC

A
I

If a , compression will act throughout the section

11

Stability Requirement
Settlement

Rv
Rv
q1 2 4 6a & q2 2 6a 2

Rv

when a
q1 q2
2

12

Stability Requirement
Settlement

2 Rv
q1

&

q2 0

13

Stability Requirement
Settlement

2 Rv
q
3a
14

Stability Requirement
Sliding
F = Rv
F
1 .5
Ph

Overturning
Stabilizing moment
2
Overturnin g moment

15

Basis of Structural Design

1. Lateral earth pressure will be considered to be live loads and
a factor of 1.6 applied.
2. In general, the reactive pressure of the soil under the structure
at the service load stage will be taken equal to 1.6 times the soil
pressure found for service load conditions in the stability
analysis.
3.

For cantilever retaining walls, the calculated dead load of the

toe slab, which causes moments acting in the opposite sense to
those produced by the upward soil reaction, will be multiplied by
a factor of 0.9.

16

Basis of Structural Design

4. For the heel slab, the required moment capacity will be based
on the dead load of the heel slab itself, plus the earth directly
above it, both multiplied by 1.2.
5.

Surcharge, if resent, will be treated as live load with load

factor of 1.6.

6.

The upward pressure of the soil under the heel slab will be
taken equal to zero, recognizing that for severe over load stage
a non linear pressure distribution will probably be obtained, with
most of the reaction concentrated near the toe.17

Drainage
Drainage can be provided in various ways
i.

Weep holes, 6 to 8 in. 5 to 10 ft horizontally spaced. 1 ft 3

stone at rear end at the bottom weep holes to facilitate
drainage and to prevent clogging.

ii.

Longitudinal drains embedded in crushed stone or gravel,

along rear face of the wall.

iii.

Continuous back drain consisting of a layer of gravel or

crushed stone covering the entire rear face of the wall with
discharge at the ends.
18

Estimating size of cantilever retaining wall

Height of Wall
The base of footing should be below frost penetration about 3
or 4.

Stem Thickness.
Stem is thickest at its base. They have thickness in the range
of 8 to 12% of overall height of the retaining wall. The minimum
thickness at the top is 10 but preferably 12.

Base Thickness

Preferably, total thickness of base fall between 7 and 10% of

the overall wall height. Minimum thickness is at
least 10 to 12
19
used.

Estimating size of cantilever retaining wall

Base Length

For preliminary estimates, the base length can be taken

about 40 to 60% of the overall wall height.
Another method refer to fig. W is assumed to be equal to
weight of the material within area abcd.
20
Take moments about toe and solve for x.

Problem
Design a cantilever retaining wall to support a bank of earth of
16 ft height above the final level of earth at the toe of the wall.
The backfill is to be level, but a building is to be built on the fill.
Assume that an 8 surcharge will approximate the lateral
earth pressure effect.
Weight of retained material = 120 lb/ft3
Angle of internal friction = 35o
Coefficient of friction b/w
concrete and soil = 0.4
fc=3000 psi

fy=60,000 psi
Maximum
pressure
= 5 k/ft2

soil
21

Solution
Height of Wall

Allowing 4 for frost penetration to the bottom of footing in

front of the wall, the total height becomes.
h = 16 + 4 = 20 ft.

Thickness of Base

At this stage, it may be assumed 7 to 10% of the overall

height h.

Assume a uniform thickness t = 2 ( 10% of h )

Base Length
h = 20 h = 8

22

Solution
1
P Cah wh(h 2h)
2
1 1 sin

120 20 20 2 8

2 1 sin
0.5 0.271 120 20 36
11707 .2 lb

h2 3hh
20 3 20 8
y

3 h 2h
3 20 2 8
8.148 ft
2

23

Solution
Moments about point a
W = (120)(x)(20+8) = 3360 x lb
x
( W )( ) P y
2
x
(3360 x )( ) (11707 .2)(8.148 )
2
x = 7.54 ft
So base length = 1.5 x x = 11.31 ft
Use 11 ft 4 with x = 7-8 and 3-8 toe length

24

Solution
Stem Thickness
Prior computing stability factors, a more accurate
knowledge of the concrete dimensions is necessary.
The thickness of the base of the stem is selected with the
regard for bending and shear requirements.

P for 18 height and h = 8

1
P Cah wh(h 2h)
2
1
0.271 120 18 (18 2 8)
2
9951 .12 lb
h2 3hh'
(18 )2 (3)(18 )(8)
y

'
3(h 2h )
3(18 2 8)
7.412 ft

25

Solution
Mu = (1.6) Py = (1.6) (9951.12) (7.412)
= 118004 [Link]

max

(0.85) 1 f c
fy

0.003

0.003 0.005

(0.85)(0.85)(3000)
0.003

60,000
0.003 0.005
0.0203(OR TableA 4, Nilson )
For economy and ease of bar placement,

0.4 max 0.008

26

Solution

f y
Rn f y 1 0.588 '
fc

psi

304
Re quired M n
Mu
Re quired bd

Rn
bd 2
2

118004 12

0.9 12 304
d 20.75"
Total thickness = 20.75 + 0.5 + 2.5 = 23.75
Try 24 thickness of base of stem and select 12 for top of the wall
27

Solution

Shear at d

d used now = 24-0.5-2.5=21=1.75

At 18 1.75 = 16.25 from top
1
P
Cah wh ( h 2h)
2
1

0.271120 16.2516.25 2 8
2
8521 lb
Vu 1.6 P
13634 lb

Vu 2

f cbd

0.85 2 3000 12 21
20704 lb
Since Vu Vu , So no shear re inf orcement is required .
28

Solution

F.O.S Against Overturning

Component

Force

Arm

Moment

W1

(5.667)(18)(120)=12239.7

3.67+2+5.667/2

104037.9

W2

3.67+1+1/3

6750.6

W3

(18)(1)(150)=2700

3.67+0.5=4.17

11250

W4

(11.33)(2)(150)=3399.00

11.33/2

19267

W5

3.67+1+2/3

4187.7

W6

(6.67)(8)(120)=6400

3.67+1+6.67/2

51200

Total

1
)(1)(18)(150)=1350.1
2

1
)(18)(1)(120)=1080
2

27170.1

198266.6
29

Solution
P = 11707.2 lb
y= 8.148 ft
Overturning Moment = 11707.2 x 8.148 = 95390.27 [Link]
198266.6
F.O.S. against overturning

O.K
2.08 2
95390.27

Location of Resultant & Footing Soil Pressure

Distance of the resultant from the front edge is
Re sisting moment Overturning moment
a
Total load

198266.6 95390.27
a
3.786
27170.1
Middle third=L/3= 3.77 ft, a>L/3,So resultant is within the
middle third.
q1

Rv

( 4 6 a )

27170.1
4 11.33 6 3.786
q1
2
11.33

30

Solution
q1= 4783.7 lb/ft2 < 5 k/ft2

q2

Rv

(6a 2) 11 lb / ft 2

So O.K against bearing pressure.

31

Solution
F.O.S. against sliding
force causing sliding = P = 11707.2 lb
Frictional resistance = R

= (0.4) (27170.1)

= 10868 lb

Passive earth pressure against 2 height of footing 1 wh 2Caph

2
1 sin
1
(120)(2)

2
1 sin
442.82 lb
F .O.S .

10868 442
0.966 1.5 So key is required
.
32
11707 .2

Solution

The front of key is 4 in front of back face of the stem. This

will permit anchoring the stem reinforcement in the key..

x (4783.7 11)

6
11.33
x 2527.5 lb / ft
Total ordinate 2538.5 lb / ft

Frictional resistance between soil to soil = R

4783.7 2538.5
(tan )
(5.34)
2

13773.4 lb

33

Solution

Frictional resistance between heel concrete to soil = R

2538.5 11
(0.4)
( 6)
2

3059.4 lb

1 2
Passive earth pressure wh Cph
2
2
1
120 h 3.69 221.4 h2 lb
2
F.O.S. against sliding = 1.5
13773.4 3059.4 221.4h 2
1 .5
11707 .2
h 1.81 ft
So use key of height = 2

34

Solution
Design of Heel Cantilever
Wu = (1.6) (120) (8) + (1.2) [18 x 120 + 2 x 150 ]
= 4488 lb/ft
W2
Mu
2
1
2

4488 5.67
2
72055 lb. ft

Vu = Factored shear a joint of stem and heel

When the support reaction introduces compression into
the end region, then critical shear is at a distance d
from face of support. However, the support is not
producing compression, therefore, critical shear is at
joint of stem and heel.
35

Solution
Design of Heel Cantilever
Vu = Factored shear a joint of stem
and heel
= (5.67) (4488)
= 25432 lb

Vc 2

f cbd

0.75 2 3000 12 20.5

20211 Vu
So depth is required to be increased.
Vu
25432
d

26"
2 f cb (0.75)(2)( 3000 )(12)

Therefore heel thickness 30,

d = 26.5

36

Solution
Design of Heel Cantilever
Now Wu=(1.6)(120)(8)+(1.2)[(17.5)(120)+(2.5)(150)] = 4506 lb/ft

1
2
M u (4506)(5.67) 72344 lb. ft.
2
Re quired Rn
m

fy
0.85 f

'
c

Mu

(0.9)(12)(26.5) 2

114.5 psi

23.53

2mRn
1
1 1
m
fy

min

bd 2

72344 12

200

0.0033
fy

0.002

37

Solution

As = min bd = 1.06 in2

Bar area of
#8=3.14(1)^2/4=0.79,
No of
bars
required=1.06/0.79=1.35, Take=2, S=12inch/No. of bars,
Use # 8 @ 6 c/c (As = 1.57 in2 )

Design of Toe Slab

x
7.66

4772.7 11.33
x = 3226.7

3226.7 + 11 = 3237.7
Self load=(0.9)(12150)=270 lb/ft

3237.7 4783.7
Wu (1.6)

Wu=(6417.15)lb/ft
Wu = 6417.15 lb/ft 270 = 6147.15

Overload factor = 0.9

d=24-3.5=20.5
=1.71 ft
38

Solution

Wu 2 (6147.15)(3.67) 2
Mu

41332 lb. ft
2
2
Mu
41332 12
Re quired Rn

109
2
2
bd
0.912 20.5
So min will control

As = (0.0033)(12)(20.5) = 0.82 in2

1
2

Use # 8 @ 7 c/c (As = 1.26 in2) Table A-3 of Nilson

At a distance d= 20.5 = 1.71

3.67 1.71 = 1.96

x
9.37

4772.7 11.33
x 3947.1
3947.1 11 3958.1

39

Solution

3958.1 4783.7
(1.96)(1.6) 13707.1 lb
Earth pressure
2

Vu = 13707.1 270 x 1.96 = 13177.9lb

Vc (2 f c )bd
0.75 2 3000 12 20.5 20211 lb Vu
So no shear reinforcement is required

Reinforcement for stem

1
P Cah wh(h 2h)
2
1
0.271 120 17.5 17.5 2 8
2
9532 .43 lb
h2 3hh (17.5)2 3 17.5 8 726.25
y

7.23
3 h 2h
3 17.5 2 8
100.40
5

Solution
Reinforcement for stem

M u 1.6 9532.43 7.23 110271 .15 lb. ft

Rn

Mu

bd 2

110271 12
0.9 12 ( 21) 2

2mRn
1 1
fy

fy
m
0.85 f c

278 psi

60,000

23.53
0.85 3000

1
2 23.58 278

1 1

23.58
60,000

0.005
As bd 0.005 12 21 1.26 in 2
Use #8 bars @ 6 c / c ( A 1.57 in 2 )41
s

Solution
Temperature & shrinkage reinforcement
Total amount of horizontal bars (h is average thickness)

12 24
2
As 0.002bh 0.002 12
0.43 in / ft
2

Since front face is more exposed for temperature changes

therefore two third of this amount is placed in front face and one
third in rear face.
2
As 0.28 in 2 /#ft4 @ 8 in. c/c As=0.29 in2.
Accordingly
3
1
2 / ft # 3 @ 9 in. c/c A =0.15 in2.

As 0.14 inUse
s
3
For vertical reinforcement on the front face, use any nominal
amount. Use # 3 @ 18 in. c/c

Since base is not subjected to extreme temperature changes,

42
therefore # 4@ 12 c/c just for spacers will be sufficient.

Solution

43