Measurement
Characteristics
Ulemj Damiran
Introduction
Measurement is the experimental process of
acquiring any quantitative information. When
doing a measurement, we compare the
measurable quantity measurand - with
another same type of quantity. This other
quantity is called measurement unit
Measurand a physical quantity, property, or
condition which is measured
2
Measurements
Can be divided into direct or indirect measurements
Direct measurement measured quantity is registered
directly from the instruments display.
Measuring voltage vith voltmeter
Measuring length with ruler
Indirect measurement result is calculated (using formula)
from the values obtained from direct measurements
Finding work done by current:
U voltmeter
I ammeter
t clock
A=U*I*t
3
Classification of physical
quantites
Can be divided for quantities which value
is determined uniquely and does not depend on the zero
level
can only be determined as a reference to some fixed
zero level
mass
potential energy (zero level can be ground floor or 3d
floor and result depends on that)
Time
but time interval and change in potential energy belong to the
upper class
Measurements main
equation
The value of the measured quantity can be
expressed as
Y y [Y ]
where [Y] is the measurement unit and y is
the number, which shows how many times the
measurable quantity differs from the unit
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What is instrument
Instrument is a device that transforms a physical
variable of interest (the measurand ) into a form
that is suitable for recording (the measurement)
An example is ruler
the measurand is the
length of some object
the measurement is the
number of units (meters,
inches, etc.) that
represent the length
In order for the measurement to have consistent meaning, it
is necessary to employ a standard system of units
Simple Instrument
Model
Physical
Measurement
Variable
Measurement
SENSOR
Measurand
X
Physical
Process
Signal
Variable
M
Display
The key functional element of the instrument model is the
sensor, which has the function of converting the physical
variable input into a signal variable output
Due to the property that signal variables can be manipulated
in a transmission system, such as an electrical or mechanical
circuit, they can be transmitted to a remote output or
recording device
In electrical circuits, voltage is a common signal variable
7
Simple Instrument
Model
Common physical variables
Typical signal variables
Force
Voltage
Length
Current
Temperature
Displacement spring of newtonmeter
Acceleration
Light change in intensity
Velocity
Pressure
Frequency
Capacity
Resistance
Time
Simple Instrument
Model
If the signal from Sensor output is small, it is
needed to be amplified. In many cases it is also
necessary for the instrument to provide a digital
signal output for connection with a computerbased data acquisition systems.
Physical
Measurement
Variable
Measurand
Analog
Signal
Variable
AMPLIFIER
SENSOR
X
Physical
Process
Analog
Signal
Variable
Digital
Signal
Variable
A/D
Converter
Computer
Memory
Output
Sensors
Sensor - the part of a
measurement system
that responds directly
to the physical variable
being measured
Sensors can be
categorized into two
broad classes
Passive sensors
Active sensors
10
Passive Sensors
Passive sensors do not add
energy as part of the
measurement process, but
may remove energy in their
operation, ie energy is
converted to measurable
quantity
One example of a passive
sensor is a thermocouple,
which converts a physical
temperature into a voltage
signal
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Active Sensors
Active sensors add energy to
the measurement
environment as part of the
measurement process
An example of an active
sensor is a radar or sonar,
where actively out-sended
radio (radar) or acoustic
(sonar) waves reflect off of
some object and thus
measures its range from the
sensor
Arecibo Observatory in Puerto
Rico
Besides being most powerful radio
telescopes and the largest single unit
telescope in the world, it is also a
radar probably the world biggest
active sensor though
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Sensor Fusion (uniting of
sensors)
Sensor fusion - in this case, two or more sensors are used to
observe the environment and their output signals are combined
in some manner (typically in a processor) to provide a single
enhanced measurement
Physical
Process
X1
Instrument
s
SENSOR
1
S1
X2
SENSOR
2
S2
X3
SENSOR
3
S3
SENSOR
FUSION
Examples:
1. Sensor output relation to the ambient temp is taken account
during the measurements
2. Image synthesis where radar, optical, and infrared images can be
combined into a single enhanced image
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Operational Modes of
Instrumentation I
(Null instrument)
Null Instrument - A
measuring device that
balances the measurand
against a known value,
thus achieving a null
condition. Two inputs are
essential to the null
instrument.
Null measurement devices usually consist of
1. automatic or manual feedback system that allows the comparison of
known standard value,
2. an iterative balancing operation using some type of comparator
3. and a null deflection at parity
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Null instrument
Advantages:
Minimizes measurement loading errors
(i.e. alter the value of the measured signal).
Effective when the measurand is a very
small value.
minimizes interaction between the
measuring system and the measurand, by
balancing the unknown input against a
known standard input
Achieving perfect parity (zero condition) is
limited only by the state of the art of the
circuit or scheme being employed
Disatvantages:
Slow - an iterative balancing operation
requires more time to execute than simply
measuring sensor input. Not suitable for
fast measurements i.e. only for static
measurements
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Null instrument example
An equal arm balance
scale with manual
balance feedback
Potetntiometer
AB is the potentiometer wire with resistance R1.
The EMF of a standard DC source is volts.
The rheostat resistance is R . If the null point
is obtained at point C, then the EMF of and 1
are equal
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Operational Modes of
Instrumentation II
(Deflection instrument)
Deflection instrument - a measuring device whose output
deflects (deviates) proportional to the magnitude of the measurand
Deflection instruments are the most common measuring
instruments
Advantages:
high dynamic response i.e. can be used for fast measurements
can be designed for either static or dynamic measurements or
both
Disadvantages:
by deriving its energy from the measurand, the act of
measurement will influence the measurand and change the
value of the variable being measured. This change is called a
loading error.
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Deflection isnstrument example
Spring scale as a deflection instrument. Scale has to be calibrated.
18
Flow chart of a deflection
instrument
([Link] of deflection
signal due to amplification )
The logic flow chart for a deflection instrument is straightforward
Examples of signal conditioning are to multiply
the deflection signal by some scaler magnitude,
such as in amplification or filtering, or to
transform the signal by some arithmetic function
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Analog and Digital
Sensors
Analog sensors - provide a signal that is
continuous in both its magnitude and its
temporal (time) or spatial (space) content
Digital sensors - provide a signal that is
a direct digital representation of the
measurand. Digital sensors are basically
binary (on or off ) devices. Essentially,
a digital signal exists at only discrete
values of time (or space)
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Analog sensor
The defining word for analog is continuous i.e.
if a sensor provides a continuous output signal
that is directly proportional to the input signal,
then it is analog
Thermocouple as an analog sensor
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Digital sensor
A common representation of digital signal is the
discrete sampled signal, which represents a
sensor output in a form that is discrete both in
time or space and in magnitude.
Data can be sent
either in serial or
parallel format
A rotating shaft with a revolution counter. Each revolution generates a
spike.
In this example, the continuous rotation of the shaft is analog but
the revolution count
is digital. The amplitude of the voltage spike is set to activate the
counter and is
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Analog Readout
Instruments
An analog readout
instrument provides an
output indication that is
continuous and directly
analogous to the behavior
of the measurand
For example
deflection of a pointer
or an ink trace on a
graduated scale
the intensity of a light
beam or a sound wave
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Digital Readout
Instruments
A digital readout instrument provides an output indication
that is discrete
Many digital devices combine features of an analog sensor
with a digital readout or, in general, convert an analog signal
to a discrete signal. In such situations, an analog to digital
converter (ADC) is required.
HP3458A digital multimeter, most widely used device in MRI
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E2
Z
Input Impedance
In the ideal case, the act of measurement
should not alter the value of the measured
signal. Any such alteration is a loading
error
Loading errors can be minimized by
impedance matching of the source with the
measuring instrument reduce the power
needed for measurement
The power loss through the measuring
instrument
where Z() is the input impedance of the
measuring instrument, and E(V) is the
source voltage potential being measured
To minimize the power loss, the input
impedance should be large
E
P
Z
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Input impedance connecting instruments
An equivalent circuit is formed by applying a
measuring instrument (device 2) to the output
terminals of an instrument (device 1).
The potential actually sensed by device 2 will be
1
E 2 E1
1 Z1 / Z 2
The difference between the actual potential E 1 and the
measured potential E2 is a loading error. High input
impedance Z2 relative to Z1 minimizes this error.
A general rule is for the input impedance to be at least 100
times the source impedance to reduce the loading error to 1%.
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Calibration
Calibration is the relationship
between the physical
measurement variable (input) and
the signal variable (output) for a
specific sensor
Calibration curve graph that
characterizes sensor or instrument
response to a physical input
Sensitivity of the device is
determined by the slope of the
calibration curve.
Dynamic range - the difference
between the smallest and largest
physical inputs that can reliably be
measured by an instrument
Saturation - increasing the
physical input value to the level
where there is no change in output
signal
dynamic rangeSaturation regio
Calibration curve example.
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Error types and sources
Systematic errors (bias)
measured values have
similar deviation from
correct value
Systematic
error
(bias)
Random
error
(precision)
Random errors (noise)
measured values
deviate randomly
around mean value.
Noise describes the
precison of
measurements
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Correct terms
Measurement is described by its discrimination , its
precision , and its accuracy
These are too often used interchangeably, but they
cover different concepts:
Discrimination - the smallest increment that can be
discerned. Term resolution is used as a synonym, but
according to the book", it is now officially decleared
as incorrect!
Precision - the spread of values obtained during the
measurements. Two terms that should be used here
are:
repeatability - variation for a set of measurements made
in a very short period
reproducibility same concept, but for measurements
made over a long period
Accuracy - is the closeness of a measurement to the
value defined to be the true value
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Discrimination, precision and
accuracythickness of the hole
Two sets of arrow
shots fired into a
target to
understand the
measurement
concepts of
discrimination,
precision, and
accuracy
decides the
discrimination
Better precision i.e.
better repeatability
Better
accuracy i.e.
Mean value
closer to
bullseye
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Systematic error sources
If measurements are made at
temperature other than the
sensor was calibrated it
introduces systematic error.
If systematic error source is
known, it can be corrected
for by the use of
compensation methods
Aging of the components will
change the sensor response
and hence the calibration
Damage or abuse of the
sensor can also change the
calibration
Invasiveness - the measurement
process itself changes the
intended measurand. This is
key concern in many
measurement problems.
Reading measurements by
human observer common
error source is parallax i.e.
reading dial from nonnormal angle
NB! Interaction between
measurand and
measurement device is
always present
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Invasivness - example
Reducing invasivness
to use high impedance
electronic devices to
measure voltage
Extreme invasiveness
large warm
thermometer to
measure the
temperature of a
small volume of cold
fluid
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Periodical calibration
In order to prevent
systematic errors, sensors
should be
periodically
recalibrated
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Random error sources
Environmenta
l Noise
Transmission
Noise
N3
Sensor
Noise
N2
N1
AMPLIFIER
SENSOR
Physical
Process
An example for N1 would be background
noise received by a microphone
An example of N2 would be thermal
noise within a sensitive transducer,
such as an infrared sensor
A common example of N3 is 50 Hz
interference from the electric power
grid
The noise will be amplified along
with the signal as it passes
through the amplifier
Noise is presented as signal to
noise ratio (SNR).
SNR(dB)=10*log(Psignal/Pnoise)
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Random noise
What if Psignal < Pnoise ?
If some identifying characteristics of that
signal are known and sufficient signal
processing power is available, then the
signal can be interpreted.
Example of such signal processing is the
human ability to hear a voice in a loud
noise environment
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Estimating the
measurement accuracy
Error is defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the measurand
E =(measured) - (true)
where
E = the measurement error
(measured) = the value obtained by a measurement
(true) = the true value of the measurand
Error can almost not be ever known, becuse we dont
know the (true) value, error can only be estimated.
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What is uncertainty?
Uncertainty of measurement is a
parameter that describes the distribution
of the (thinkable) measured values
The word uncertainty expresses the
boubt to the exactness of the result of the
measurement
Measurement result is the measurement
value with its uncertainty
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Classification of
uncertainties
Standard uncertainty uncertainty of a measurement
expressed as a standard deviation
Standard uncertainty consists of many components which are
divided into two categories
type A uncertainty which is estimated using statistical
methods
type B uncertainty which is estimated using means other
than statistical analysis
uA(x), where x denotes the measured value for which the
uncertainty is given
uB(x)
uC u A2 u B2
Combined standard uncertainty U k u
C
Expanded
Where k is uncertainty
the coveragefactor, typically in range 2-3
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How to estimate
uncertainties?
f (x x)
exp
2
( x x )2
2 x2
Where the x describes the
broadness of the curve and
its square is called variance
standard deviation
0.9
0.8
0.7
-1
_
x
Type A when taking
multiple values the
distribution of these values
corresponds to normal or
Gaussian distribution
f (x) [mm
_
x - x
0.6
_
x + x
0.5
0.4
0.3
_
x - 2x
0.2
0.1
_
x + 2x
_
x + 3x
_
x - 3x
0
75.2 75.5 75.7 75.9 76.2 76.4 76.7 76.9 77.1 77.4 77.6 77.9
x [mm]
variance
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How to estimate
uncertainties II?
Standard deviation
x
( x1 xt ) ( x2 xt ) ( xn xt )
( xi xt ) 2
i 1
Where xt is the true value
Since we dont know the true value, we use
n
sx
( x1 x ) ( x2 x ) ( xn x )
n 1
( xi x ) 2
i 1
n 1
Wherex
is the mean value and sx experimental
standard deviation
and
x lim s x
n
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How to estimate
uncertainties III?
If you take e.g. 100 measurements and divide
them to 10 series each consisting 10 values and
then calculate the mean to each series, you can
show that the Stdev of the mean of the series is
related to the
Stdev of one series as follows
n
( xi x ) 2
s
sx
i 1
n(n 1)
Number n under the square-root, is the number
of measurements in one series
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