CHAPTE

Money and Inflation

MACROECONOMICS SIXTH EDITION

N. GREGORY MANKIW
PowerPoint Slides by Ron Cronovich
2007 Worth Publishers, all rights reserved

In this chapter, you will

learn

The classical theory of inflation

causes
effects
social costs
Classical assumes prices are flexible &
markets clear

Applies to the long run

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 2

U.S. inflation and its trend, 19602006

15%

% change in CPI from

12 months earlier

12%

long-run trend

9%
6%
3%
0%
1960 1965

1970 1975

1980 1985

1990 1995

2000 2005
slide 3

The connection between

money and prices

Inflation rate = the percentage increase

in the average level of prices.

Price = amount of money required to

buy a good.

Because prices are defined in terms of money,

we need to consider the nature of money,
the supply of money, and how it is controlled.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 4

Money: Definition

Money is the stock

of assets that can be
readily used to make
transactions.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 5

Money: Functions

medium of exchange
we use it to buy stuff

store of value
transfers purchasing power from the present to
the future

unit of account
the common unit by which everyone measures
prices and values
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 6

Money: Types
1. fiat money

has no intrinsic value

example: the paper currency we use
2. commodity money

has intrinsic value

examples:
gold coins,
cigarettes in P.O.W. camps
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 7

Discussion Question
Which of these are money?
a. Currency
b. Checks
c. Deposits in checking accounts

(demand deposits)
d. Credit cards
e. Certificates of deposit

(time deposits)
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 8

The money supply and

monetary policy definitions

The money supply is the quantity of money

available in the economy.

Monetary policy is the control over the money

supply.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 9

The central bank

Monetary policy is conducted by a countrys
central bank.

In the U.S.,
the central bank
is called the
Federal Reserve
(the Fed).
The Federal Reserve Building
Washington, DC
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 10

Money supply measures, April

2006
symbol assets included
C

amount
($ billions)

Currency

$739

M1

C + demand deposits,
travelers checks,
other checkable deposits

$1391

M2

M1 + small time deposits,

savings deposits,
money market mutual funds,
money market deposit accounts

$6799

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 11

The Quantity Theory of Money

A simple theory linking the inflation rate
to the growth rate of the money supply.

Begins with the concept of velocity

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 12

Velocity
basic concept: the rate at which money circulates
definition: the number of times the average dollar
bill changes hands in a given time period

example: In 2007,
$500 billion in transactions
money supply = $100 billion
The average dollar is used in five transactions
in 2007
So, velocity = 5
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 13

Velocity, cont.
This suggests the following definition:
T
V
M
where
V = velocity
T = value of all transactions
M = money supply

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 14

Velocity, cont.
Use nominal GDP as a proxy for total
transactions.
Then,

P Y
V
M

where
P

= price of output

= quantity of output

P Y = value of output

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

(GDP deflator)
(real GDP)
(nominal GDP)

slide 15

The quantity equation

The quantity equation
M V = P Y
follows from the preceding definition of velocity.

It is an identity:
it holds by definition of the variables.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 16

Money demand and the

quantity equation

M/P = real money balances, the purchasing

power of the money supply.

A simple money demand function:

(M/P )d = k Y
where
k = how much money people wish to hold for
each dollar of income.
(k is exogenous)
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 17

Money demand and the

quantity equation

money demand:
quantity equation:

(M/P )d = k Y
M V = P Y

The connection between them: k = 1/V

When people hold lots of money relative
to their incomes (k is high),
money changes hands infrequently (V is low).

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 18

Back to the quantity theory of

money

starts with quantity equation

assumes V is constant & exogenous: V V
With this assumption, the quantity equation can
be written as

M V P Y

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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The quantity theory of money,

cont.

M V P Y
How the price level is determined:

With V constant, the money supply determines

nominal GDP (P Y ).

Real GDP is determined by the economys

supplies of K and L and the production
function (Chap 3).

The price level is

P = (nominal GDP)/(real GDP).
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 20

The quantity theory of money,

cont.

Recall from Chapter 2:

The growth rate of a product equals
the sum of the growth rates.

The quantity equation in growth rates:

M V
P Y

M
V
P
Y
The quantity theory of money assumes
V
V is constant, so
= 0.
V
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 21

The quantity theory of money,

cont.

(Greek letter pi)

denotes the inflation rate:
The result from the
preceding slide was:

P

P
M
P Y

M
P
Y

Solve this result

for to get

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 22

The quantity theory of money,

cont.

Normal economic growth requires a certain

amount of money supply growth to facilitate the
growth in transactions.

Money growth in excess of this amount leads

to inflation.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 23

The quantity theory of money,

cont.

Y/Y depends on growth in the factors of

production and on technological progress
(all of which we take as given, for now).
Hence,
Hence, the
the Quantity
Quantity Theory
Theory predicts
predicts
aa one-for-one
one-for-one relation
relation between
between
changes
changes in
in the
the money
money growth
growth rate
rate and
and
changes
changes in
in the
the inflation
inflation rate.
rate.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 24

Confronting the quantity

theory with data
The quantity theory of money implies
1. countries with higher money growth rates
should have higher inflation rates.
2. the long-run trend behavior of a countrys
inflation should be similar to the long-run trend
in the countrys money growth rate.

Are the data consistent with these implications?

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 25

International data on inflation and

money growth
Turkey
Ecuador

Indonesia

Argentina

U.S.
Singapore

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

Belarus

Switzerland

slide 26

U.S. inflation and money growth,

1960-2006
15%
12%

Over
Over the
the long
long run,
run, the
the inflation
inflation and
and
money
money growth
growth rates
rates move
move together,
together,
M2 growth
as
theory
predicts.
as the
the quantity
quantity
theoryrate
predicts.

9%
6%
3%
0%
1960 1965

inflation
rate
1970 1975

1980 1985

1990 1995

2000 2005
slide 27

Seigniorage

To spend more without raising taxes or selling

bonds, the govt can print money.

The revenue raised from printing money

is called seigniorage
(pronounced SEEN-your-idge).

The inflation tax:

Printing money to raise revenue causes inflation.
Inflation is like a tax on people who hold
money.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 28

Inflation and interest rates

Nominal interest rate, i

not adjusted for inflation

Real interest rate, r

adjusted for inflation:
r = i

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 29

The Fisher effect

The Fisher equation: i = r +

Chap 3: S = I determines r .
Hence, an increase in
causes an equal increase in i.

This one-for-one relationship

is called the Fisher effect.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 30

percent
per year
15

Inflation and nominal interest

rates in the U.S., 1955-2006
nominal
interest rate

10

inflation rate

-5
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 31

Inflation and nominal interest rates

across countries
Romania
Zimbabwe
Brazil

Bulgaria

Israel
Germany

U.S.

Switzerland

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 32

Exercise:
Suppose V is constant, M is growing 5% per year,
Y is growing 2% per year, and r = 4.
a. Solve for i.
b. If the Fed increases the money growth rate by
2 percentage points per year, find i.
c. Suppose the growth rate of Y falls to 1% per year.
What will happen to ?
What must the Fed do if it wishes to

keep constant?
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 33

Answers:
V is constant, M grows 5% per year,
Y grows 2% per year, r = 4.
a. First, find = 5 2 = 3.
Then, find i = r + = 4 + 3 = 7.
b. i = 2, same as the increase in the money
growth rate.
c. If the Fed does nothing, = 1.
To prevent inflation from rising,
Fed must reduce the money growth rate by
1 percentage point per year.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 34

Two real interest rates

= actual inflation rate

(not known until after it has occurred)

e = expected inflation rate

i e = ex ante real interest rate:
the real interest rate people expect
at the time they buy a bond or take out a loan

i = ex post real interest rate:

the real interest rate actually realized
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Money demand and

the nominal interest rate

In the quantity theory of money,

the demand for real money balances
depends only on real income Y.

Another determinant of money demand:

the nominal interest rate, i.
the opportunity cost of holding money (instead
of bonds or other interest-earning assets).

Hence, i in money demand.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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The money demand function

(M P ) L(i , Y )
d

(M/P )d = real money demand, depends

negatively on i
i is the opp. cost of holding money
positively on Y
higher Y more spending
so, need more money
(L is used for the money demand function
because money is the most liquid asset.)
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 37

The money demand function

(M P ) L(i , Y )
d

L(r , Y )
e

When people are deciding whether to hold

money or bonds, they dont know what inflation
will turn out to be.
Hence, the nominal interest rate relevant for
money demand is r + e.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Equilibrium
M
e
L(r , Y )
P
The supply of real
money balances

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

Real money
demand

slide 39

What determines what

M
e
L(r , Y )
P
variable

how determined (in the long run)

exogenous (the Fed)

adjusts to make S = I

Y F (K , L )

M
L(i ,Y )
adjusts to make
P

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 40

How P responds to M
M
e
L(r , Y )
P

For given values of r, Y, and e,

a change in M causes P to change by the
same percentage just like in the quantity
theory of money.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 41

What about expected inflation?

Over the long run, people dont consistently

over- or under-forecast inflation,
so e = on average.

In the short run, e may change when people

get new information.

EX: Fed announces it will increase M next year.

People will expect next years P to be higher,
so e rises.

This affects P now, even though M hasnt changed

yet.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 42

How P responds to e
M
L(r e , Y )
P

For given values of r, Y, and M ,

e i (the Fisher effect)
M P

P to make M P fall
to re-establish eq'm

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Discussion question
Why is inflation bad?

What costs does inflation impose on society?

List all the ones you can think of.

Focus on the long run.

Think like an economist.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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A common misperception

Common misperception:
inflation reduces real wages

This is true only in the short run, when nominal

wages are fixed by contracts.

(Chap. 3) In the long run,

the real wage is determined by
labor supply and the marginal product of labor,
not the price level or inflation rate.

Consider the data

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 45

Average hourly earnings and the

CPI, 1964-2006
$20

250

$18
200

hourly wage

$14
$12

150

$10
$8

100

$6
CPI (right scale)
wage in current dollars
wage in 2006 dollars

$4
$2
$0
1964 4 Money
1970 and
1976
CHAPTER
Inflation1982

1988

1994

2000

CPI (1982-84 = 100)

$16

50

0
2006

slide 46

The classical view of inflation

The classical view:

A change in the price level is merely a change
in the units of measurement.

So why, then, is inflation a

social problem?

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 47

The social costs of inflation

fall into two categories:
1. costs when inflation is expected
2. costs when inflation is different than

people had expected

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 48

The costs of expected inflation:

1. Shoeleather cost

def: the costs and inconveniences of reducing

money balances to avoid the inflation tax.

i
real money balances

Remember: In long run, inflation does not

affect real income or real spending.

So, same monthly spending but lower average

money holdings means more frequent trips to
the bank to withdraw smaller amounts of cash.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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The costs of expected inflation:

2. Menu costs

def: The costs of changing prices.

Examples:
cost of printing new menus
cost of printing & mailing new catalogs
The higher is inflation, the more frequently
firms must change their prices and incur
these costs.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 50

The costs of expected inflation:

3. Relative price distortions

Firms facing menu costs change prices infrequently.

Example:
A firm issues new catalog each January.
As the general price level rises throughout the year,
the firms relative price will fall.

Different firms change their prices at different times,

leading to relative price distortions
causing microeconomic inefficiencies
in the allocation of resources.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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The costs of expected inflation:

4. Unfair tax treatment
Some taxes are not adjusted to account for
inflation, such as the capital gains tax.
Example:

Jan 1: you buy $10,000 worth of IBM stock

Dec 31: you sell the stock for $11,000,
so your nominal capital gain is $1000 (10%).

Suppose = 10% during the year.

Your real capital gain is $0.

But the govt requires you to pay taxes on your

$1000 nominal gain!!
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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The costs of expected inflation:

5. General inconvenience

Inflation makes it harder to compare nominal

values from different time periods.

This complicates long-range financial

planning.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Additional cost of unexpected inflation:

Arbitrary
of purchasing
Many
long-termredistribution
contracts not indexed,
power
but based on e.

If turns out different from e,

then some gain at others expense.
Example: borrowers & lenders
If > e, then (i ) < (i e)
and purchasing power is transferred from
lenders to borrowers.
If < e, then purchasing power is transferred
from borrowers to lenders.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Additional cost of high inflation:

Increased uncertainty
When inflation is high, its more variable and
unpredictable:
turns out different from e more often,
and the differences tend to be larger
(though not systematically positive or negative)

Arbitrary redistributions of wealth

become more likely.

This creates higher uncertainty,

making risk averse people worse off.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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One benefit of inflation

Nominal wages are rarely reduced, even when

the equilibrium real wage falls.
This hinders labor market clearing.

Inflation allows the real wages to reach

equilibrium levels without nominal wage cuts.

Therefore, moderate inflation improves the

functioning of labor markets.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Hyperinflation

def: 50% per month

All the costs of moderate inflation described
above become HUGE under hyperinflation.

Money ceases to function as a store of value,

and may not serve its other functions (unit of
account, medium of exchange).

People may conduct transactions with barter

or a stable foreign currency.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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What causes hyperinflation?

Hyperinflation is caused by excessive money

supply growth:

When the central bank prints money, the price

level rises.

If it prints money rapidly enough, the result is

hyperinflation.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 58

A few examples of
hyperinflation
money
growth (%)

inflation
(%)

Israel, 1983-85

295

275

Poland, 1989-90

344

400

Brazil, 1987-94

1350

1323

Argentina, 1988-90

1264

1912

Peru, 1988-90

2974

3849

Nicaragua, 1987-91

4991

5261

Bolivia, 1984-85

4208

6515

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 59

Why governments create

hyperinflation

When a government cannot raise taxes or sell

bonds,

it must finance spending increases by printing

money.

In theory, the solution to hyperinflation is simple:

stop printing money.

In the real world, this requires drastic and painful

fiscal restraint.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 60

The Classical Dichotomy

Real variables: Measured in physical units
quantities and relative prices, for example:

quantity
of outputMeasured
produced in money units, e.g.,
Nominal
variables:
real wage:
output
earned
of work
nominal
wage:
Dollars
per per
hourhour
of work.
real interest
rate:
output
earned
in the
nominal
interest
rate:
Dollars
earned
in future
future
bylending
lendingone
onedollar
unit oftoday.
output today
by

the price level: The amount of dollars needed

to buy a representative basket of goods.

CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

slide 61

The Classical Dichotomy

Note: Real variables were explained in Chap 3,

nominal ones in Chapter 4.

Classical dichotomy:
the theoretical separation of real and nominal
variables in the classical model, which implies
nominal variables do not affect real variables.

Neutrality of money: Changes in the money

supply do not affect real variables.
In the real world, money is approximately neutral
in the long run.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

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Chapter Summary
Money
the stock of assets used for transactions
serves as a medium of exchange, store of value, and
unit of account.
Commodity money has intrinsic value, fiat money
does not.
Central bank controls the money supply.
Quantity theory of money assumes velocity is stable,
concludes that the money growth rate determines the
inflation rate.
CHAPTER 4

Money and Inflation

slide 63

Chapter Summary
Nominal interest rate
equals real interest rate + inflation rate
the opp. cost of holding money
Fisher effect: Nominal interest rate moves
one-for-one w/ expected inflation.
Money demand
depends only on income in the Quantity Theory
also depends on the nominal interest rate
if so, then changes in expected inflation affect the
current price level.
CHAPTER 4

Money and Inflation

slide 64

Chapter Summary
Costs of inflation
Expected inflation

shoeleather costs, menu costs,

tax & relative price distortions,
inconvenience of correcting figures for inflation
Unexpected inflation

all of the above plus arbitrary redistributions of

wealth between debtors and creditors

CHAPTER 4

Money and Inflation

slide 65

Chapter Summary
Hyperinflation
caused by rapid money supply growth when money

printed to finance govt budget deficits

stopping it requires fiscal reforms to eliminate

govts need for printing money

CHAPTER 4

Money and Inflation

slide 66

Chapter Summary
Classical dichotomy
In classical theory, money is neutral--does not affect

real variables.
So, we can study how real variables are determined

w/o reference to nominal ones.

Then, money market eqm determines price level

and all nominal variables.

Most economists believe the economy works this

way in the long run.

CHAPTER 4

Money and Inflation

slide 67